參考文獻

• Crawford, James (ed.). 1992. Language loyalities: a source book on the official English controversy. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press.

• ---. 1992. Hold your tongue: bilingualism and the politics of “English Only”. New York: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.

• ---. 1998. Endangered Native American languages: what is to be done, and why? In Language and politics in the United States and Canada: myths and realities, eds. By Thomas Ricento & Barbara Burnaby. Mahwah, New Jersey: lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.

• ---. 2000. At war with diversity: US language policy in an age of anxiety. Clevdon: Multilingual Matters LTD.

• ---. 2002. Language policy web site & Emporium. http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/JWCRAWFORD/

• Darder, Antonia. 1995. Culture and difference: critical perspectives on the bicultural experience in the United States. Westport, Connecticut: Bergin& Garvey.

• Dicker, Susan J.. 1996. Languages in America: a pluralist view. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters Ltd.

• Ferguson, Charles A. & Shirley Brice Health (ed.). 1981. Language in the USA. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

• Fishman, Joshua A (ed.). 1999. Handbook of language and ethnic identity. New York: Oxford University Press.

• Grosjean, Francois. 1982. Life with two languages: an introduction to bilingualism. Cambridge: Harvard Univerisity Press.

• Headden, Susan. 1995. One nation, one language? U.S.News & World Report, Sept. 25. pp. 38-42.

• Heath, Shirley Brice. 1977. Language and politics in the United States. In Linguistics and Anthropology: Geogetown University Round table on Languages and Linguistics 1977, Muriel Saville-Toike (ed.). Washiongton, D.C.: Goegetown university Press.

• ---. 1981. English in our language heritage. In Language in the USA., by Charles A. Ferguson and Shirley brice Heath. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

• Huebner, Thom & Kathryn A. Davis (eds.). 1999. Sociopolitical perspectives on language policy and planning in the USA. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.

• Lambert, Wallace E. & Donald M. Taylor. 1987. Language minorities in the United States: conflicts around assimilation and proposed modes of accommondation. In Ethnicity and Language, V.VI. Madison, Wisconsin: The University of Wisconsin System Institute on Race and Ethnicity.

• Leap. William L. American Indian languages. Language in the USA, ed. by Charles A. Ferguson and Shirley Brice Heath, 116-144. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

• Marshall, David F. 1986. The question of an official language language rights and the English Language Amendment. International Journal of the Sociology of Language. New York: Mouton De Gruyter.

• Ochoa, Alberto M. 1995. Language policy and social implications for addressing the bicultural immigrant experience in the United States. In Culture and Difference: critical perspectives on teh bicultural experiece in the United States, ed. by Antonia Darder. Westport, Connecticut: Bergin & Garvey.

• Richento, Thomas & Barbara Burnaby (ed.). 1998. Languages and politics in the United and Canada: myths and realities. Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.

• Schiffman, Harold F. 1996. Linguistic culture and language policy. Longdon and New York: Routledge.

• Schmidt, Ronald Sr. 2000. Language policy and identity politics in the United States. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.

• Tse, Luch. 2001. “Why don’t they learn English?”: Separating fact from fallacy in the U.S. language debate. New York and London: Teachers College, Columbia University.

• 黃宣範。1993。語言、社會與族群意識。台北：文鶴出版有限公司。

<附錄一>

Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government for a redress of grievances.

Section 1. All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the state wherein they reside. No state shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any state deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws.

Section 2. Representatives shall be apportioned among the several states according to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of persons in each state, excluding Indians not taxed. But when the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for President and Vice President of the United States, Representatives in Congress, the executive and judicial officers of a state, or the members of the legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such state, being twenty-one years of age, and citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged, except for participation in rebellion, or other crime, the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such state.

Section 3. No person shall be a Senator or Representative in Congress, or elector of President and Vice President, or hold any office, civil or military, under the United States, or under any state, who, having previously taken an oath, as a member of Congress, or as an officer of the United States, or as a member of any state legislature, or as an executive or judicial officer of any state, to support the Constitution of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. But Congress may by a vote of two-thirds of each House, remove such disability.

Section 4. The validity of the public debt of the United States, authorized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions and bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be questioned. But neither the United States nor any state shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the United States, or any claim for the loss or emancipation of any slave; but all such debts, obligations and claims shall be held illegal and void.

Section 5. The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate legislation, the provisions of this article.

<附錄二> Native American Language Act (1990)

SEC. 102. The Congress finds that--

(1) the status of the cultures and languages of native Americans is unique and the United States has the responsibility to act together with Native Americans to ensure the survival of these unique cultures and languages;

(2) special status is accorded Native Americans in the United States, a status that recognizes distinct cultural and political rights, including the right to continue separate identities;

(3) the traditional languages of native Americans are an integral part of their cultures and identities and form the basic medium for the transmission, and thus survival, of Native American cultures, literatures, histories, religions, political institutions, and values;

(4) there is a widespread practice of treating Native Americans languages as if they were anachronisms;

(5) there is a lack of clear, comprehensive, and consistent Federal policy on treatment of Native American languages which has often resulted in acts of suppression and extermination of Native American languages and cultures;

(6) there is convincing evidence that student achievement and performance, community and school pride, and educational opportunity is clearly and directly tied to respect for, and support of, the first language of the child or student;

(7) it is clearly in the interests of the United States, individual States, and territories to encourage the full academic and human potential achievements of all students and citizens and to take steps to realize these ends;

(8) acts of suppression and extermination directed against Native American languages and cultures are in conflict with the United States policy of self-determination for Native Americans;

(9) languages are the means of communication for the full range of human experiences and are critical to the survival of cultural and political integrity of any people; and

(10) language provides a direct and powerful means of promoting international communication by people who share languages.

SEC. 104. It is the policy of the United States to--

(1) preserve, protect, and promote the rights and freedom of Native Americans to use, practice, and develop Native American languages;

(2) allow exceptions to teacher certification requirements for Federal programs, and programs funded in whole or in part by the Federal Government, for instruction in Native American languages when such teacher certification requirements hinder the employment of qualified teachers who teach in Native American languages, and to encourage State and territorial governments to make similar exceptions;

(3) encourage and support the use of Native American languages as a medium of instruction in order to encourage and support--

(A) Native American language survival,

(B) educational opportunity,

(C) increased student success and performance,

(D) increased student awareness and knowledge of their culture and history, and

(E) increased student and community pride;

(4) encourage State and local education programs to work with Native American parents, educator, Indian tribes, and other Native American governing bodies in the implementation of programs to put this policy into effect;

(5) recognize the right of Indian tribes and other Native American governing bodies to use the Native American languages as a medium of instruction in all schools funded by the Secretary of the Interior;

(6) fully recognize the inherent right of Indian tribes and other Native American governing bodies, States, territories, and possessions of the United States to take action on, and give official status to, their Native American languages for the purpose of conducting their own business;

(7) support the granting of comparable proficiency achieved through course work in a Native American language the same academic credit as comparable proficiency achieved through course work in a foreign language, with recognition of such Native American language proficiency by institutions of higher education as fulfilling foreign language entrance or degree requirements; and

(8) encourage all institutions of elementary, secondary and higher education, where appropriate, to include Native American languages in the curriculum in the same manner as foreign languages and to grant proficiency in Native American languages the same full academic credit as proficiency in foreign languages.

SEC. 105. The right of Native Americans to express themselves through the use of Native American languages shall not be restricted in any public proceeding, including publicly supported education programs.

Sec. 106. (a) The President shall direct the heads of the various Federal departments, agencies, and instrumentalities to--

(1) Evaluate their policies and procedures in consultation with Indian tribes and other Native American governing bodies as well as traditional leaders and educators in order to determine and implement changes needed to bring the policies and procedures into compliance with the provisions of this title;

(2) give the greatest effect possible in making such evaluations, absent a clear specific Federal statutory requirement to the contrary, to the policies and procedures which will give the broadest effect to the provisions of this title; and

(3) evaluate the laws which they administer and make recom-mendations to the President on amendments needed to bring such laws into compliance with the provisions of this title.

(b) By no later than the date that is 1 year after the date of enactment of this title, the President shall submit to the Congress a report containing recommendations for amendments to Federal laws that are needed to bring such laws into compliance with the provisions of this title.

Sec. 107. Nothing in this title shall be construed as precluding the use of Federal funds to teach English to Native Americans.

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