±¡·N±Ð¨|¸g¨å¬ãŪ·|¢w¥DŪÁ¿½Z
ªÀ·|ª¾Ä±»P¾Ç²ß¼ÖÆ[
¥DŪ¤H¡G°ê¥ßªFµØ¤j¾ÇÁ{§É»P¿Ô°Ó¾Ç¨t°Æ±Ð±Â ªL¯M·Ô
¥DŪ¸g¨å¡G
¡mHandbook of Positive Psychology¡n
Optimistic Explanatory Style (HP.18)
¡mPositive Psychological Assessment¡n
Learned Optimism: The Measurement of Explanatory Style (PPA.4)
¤é´Á¡G2005.11.09
(§ë¼v¤ù¤jºõ)
Learned Optimism:
The Measurement of Explanatory Style
In positive psychological assessment: a handbook of models and
measures.
(Eds.). Shane J. Lopez. & C.R. Snyder
APA. Washington, D. C. (2003),Ch4, p.57-74.
ªL¯M·Ô
³ø§i³ø§i¤jºõ¡G
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¸ÑÄÀ·®æªº´ú¶qªº¥¼¨Óµo®i«e
¨¥¼ÖÆ[¡]¥D¸q¡^ªÌ
(optimism) ªº©w¸q¡G¦r¨å¤¤ªº©w¸q¡G
1.
¥Rº¡§Æ±æªº©Ê®æ¡A©Î¬O°í«H¡ugood¡v·|±o¨ì³Ì«áªº³Ó§QA hopeful disposition or a conviction that
¡¥good¡¨ will ultimately prevail.
2.
¬Û«H§ÚÌ©Ò³BªºÀô¹Ò¡A¬O¦t©z¤¤³Ì¦nªº¥@¬ÉRefers to the belief, or the inclination to believe,
that the world is the best of all possible worlds.
¤ß²z¾Çªº©w¸q¡G
1.
¦b¬J©wªº±¡¹Ò¸Ì¡A¥Rº¡¤F§Æ±æHopeful expectations in a given situation
(Scheier & Carver, 1988)
2.
´¶¹Mªº¥¿¦V´Á«ÝGeneral expectancies that are positive
(Scheier & Carver, 1993).
«e
¨¥¼ÖÆ[¥D¸q
(optimism) vs. ´dÆ[¥D¸q(pessimism)ªº¥Dn®t²§¡G¨¤ß°·±d·|¦³©Ò¤£¦P¡G
¦b¼ÖÆ[©Ê®æ´úÅ禳°ª¤Àªº¤H¤ñ´dÆ[½×ªÌ¡A¦³¸û¤Öªº¼~Æ{¯g¯gª¬©M¾Õªø¨Ï¥Î¦³®Äªº¦]À³µ¦²¤©M¸û¤Ö¥Í²z¯gª¬¡C
Individuals who score high on measures of dispositional optimism report
¡G1. fewer depressive symptoms,
2. greater use of effective coping strategies,
3. fewer physical symptoms.
(for reviews see Scheier & Carver, 1992, 1993).
¦Ó¤£¦PªºÂk¦]·®æ¤]¦³¬Û¦Pªºµ²ªG(outcomes)¡GOptimistic explanatory style
»PÓ¤Hªº motivation, achievement, physical-well-being ¤Î low level of depressive symptoms ¦³ÃöÁp¡C«e
¨¥¤£¦P¸ÑÄÀ·®æªº¤H¡A¨äÂk¦]¤è¦¡·|¦³©Ò¤£¦P¡G
«e
¨¥Dispositional optimism »P Explanatory style
¬Û³q¶Ü¡H
Carver and Scheier
¡]2002¡^»{¬°¡G ¼ÖÆ[©Ê®æ¡qdispositional optimism¡r©M¸ÑÄÀ·®æ¡qexplanatory style¡r¬O·§©À¬Û³qªº(·§©À©Êªº³sµ²)¦ý¬O
Abramson et al., (1989)«h»{¬°¡G Âk¦]¡]¸ÑÄÀ·®æ¡^©M¹w´Á¡]¼ÖÆ[¡^¬OµLÃöªºQ
¡GExplanation »P Expectation ¤§¶¡ªºÃöÁp¡A ¨s³º¬°¦ó©O¡HQ
¡G¼ÖÆ[¨s³º¬O¤@ºØ¤Ñ¥Íªº©Ê±¡(dispositional optimism)¡A ©Î¬O¾Ç¨Óªº¡H(Learned helplessness ó Learned optimism)
¡m¾Ç²ß¼ÖÆ[¡B¼ÖÆ[¾Ç²ß¡n¡]
Learned Optimism¡^¡AMartin E. P. SeligmanµÛ¡A¬xÄõĶ¡A»·¬y¥Xª©¤½¥q¥Xª©¡C¤@¡B¸ÑÄÀ·®æ²z½×
(Explanatory Style Theories)««Øªº²ß±oµL§U²z½×
The reformulated learned helplessness theory (RLHT)
²z½×¥D¦®¡]
Abramson, Seligman, & Teaslade, 1978) ¡G ºD©Ê¦a¸ÑÄÀ¨Æ¥óªº¤è¦¡¡A·|¼vÅTÓ¤H¥¼¨Ó³B²z¨Æ±¡ªº°Ê¾÷¡B«ùÄò¤O¡B¤ÎÓ¤H¨¤ßª¬ºA¡C¸ÑÄÀ·®æªº«n¤ÀªR¦V«×¡G
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éw vs. ¤£Ã©w3.
¥þ±ªº vs. ¯S®íªº¹ï©ót¦V¨Æ¥óªº¶É¦V©T©w§Î¦¡ªº¸ÑÄÀ¡G
¨Ò¦p¡G¸ÑÄÀ©M¦P¨Æªº½Ä¬ð¡A
¤@¡B¸ÑÄÀ·®æ²z½×
(Explanatory Style Theories)¤@¡B¸ÑÄÀ·®æ²z½×
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¤@¡B¸ÑÄÀ·®æ²z½×
(Explanatory Style Theories)¹ï¥¼¨Óªº¹w´Á
(³q±`t¦V¨Æ¥óªºÂk¦]¼vÅT¸û¤j)RLHT
ªº¥D±i¡G ¹ït¦V¨Æ¥óéw¤Î¥þ±ªºÂk¦]¡A·|³y¦¨¹ï¥¼¨Ó¨Æ¥óªº¤£¥i±±¨î¹w´Á¡A¦Ó¥¼¨Ó¦b±¹ï°ÝÃD®É¡A·|·P¨ìµL§U¡C¡]Âk¦]©ó¤£Ã©w¤Î¯S©wªÌ¡A«h¬Û¤Ï¡C¡@
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¡@
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¤º¦bªºÂk¦]©M¦b¼~Æ{®Éªº§C¦Û´L¬O¦³¬ÛÃöªº¡C
¤@¡B
Explanatory Style Theories¼~Æ{ªºµ´±æ²z½×
(The Hopelessness Theory of Depression) (HT)
Abramson et al.,
HT
¬OAbramsonµ¥¤H¹ïRLHT ªº×¥¿¡C¨Ò¦p¡G¦b¡u·R¤£«ù¤[¡vªº³oÓ«H©À¡]¥~¦b¡Béw¡B¥þ±©ÊªºÂk¦]¡^¤U¡A³d³Æ»P¦ñ«Qªº¤À¤â¤]±N¾ÉPµ´±æ¡A§Y¨Ï³oÓÂk¦]¤£¬O¤º¦bªº¡C
¦]¦¹¤º¦b©ÊªºÂk¦]¡A¨Ã«D¬OÃöÁ䪺¦]¯À¡C
¤@¡B
Explanatory Style Theories¤TºØÃþ«¬ªºÂk¦]¤è¦¡Åý¤H¦b¨Æ¥ó¤¤³´¤J¼~Æ{¡G
¨Æ¥ó³QÂk¦]¬Oéwªº©M¥þ±©Êªº¡C
±À½×¨Æ¥ó·|¬Ot¦V©Î¨aÃøªºµ²ªG¡C
±À½×¨Æ¥ó¬O¦Û¤vªº¯S½è³y¦¨ªº¡C
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°ª¦ô¨Æ¥óµ²ªGªºt¦V¹w´Á¡]t¦Vµ²ªGªº¹w´Á¡^
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©µ¿ð¦Ûµo©Êªº¤ÏÀ³¡B´d¶Ë±¡·P¡B¯Ê¥F¬¡¤O¡B§N¯¤G¡B
The Measurement of Explanatory Style¤TºØ´ú¶q¤èªk
¤@¡BÂk¦]·®æ°Ý¨÷
¡]ASQ¡^Attributional Style Questionnaire,
Seligman (1979); Peterson et al., (1982)¤G¡B³v¦r¸ÑÄÀªº¤º®e¤ÀªR§Þ³N¡]
CAVE¡^Content Analysis of Verbatim Explanations
Peterson et al., (1985)
¤T¡B¨àµ£Âk¦]·®æ°Ý¨÷¡]
CASQ¡^Children¡¦s Attributional Style Questionnaire
kawlow, et al., (1978)
¤G¡B¸ÑÄÀ·®æªº´ú¶q
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¡]ASQ¡^¦h¼Æ¬ã¨sªÌ¨Ï¥Î¦¹°Ý¨÷¨Ó¬ã¨s¦¨¤H¡A¹L¥h¤Q¦~¤¤¡A¸ÑÄÀ·®æªº¬ã¨sªÌ¶}©l¨Ï¥Î
2ºØ©µ¦ùªºASQ(E-ASQ)¡CE-ASQ
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E-ASQ¨S¦³¥¿¦V¨Æ¥ó¡A©Ò¥H¥u¥Î¨Ó´ú¶qt¦V¨Æ¥óªº¸ÑÄÀ·®æ¡CCognitive Style Questionnaire (
¥ÑAbramson, 1998, ©Òµo®i¡A¥Î¥H´ú¶q¡GHT
ªº²z½× ¡]Ó¤H¬O§_·|¦³stable & global,negative consequence,
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(
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¤G)¡BCAVESahulman et al., (1989)
CAVE
ªº¤º³¡¤@P©Ê«Y¼Æ¦bCN¤W¦³ .89¡BCP¤W¦³ .80¡C¦]¬°²V¦Xªº¤À¼Æ¤ñÓ§O¨ú¦Vªº¤À¼Æ¦n¡A©Ò¥H¹ªÀy¤§«áªº¬ã¨s±Mª`©ó²V¦X¤À¼Æ¤W¡C
(
¤G)¡B CAVEPeterson and Seligman (1981)
²v¥ý¨Ï¥ÎCAVE¨Ó¬ã¨s¸ÑÄÀ·®æ»P¼~Æ{¯gªºÃö«Y¡C¥L̨ϥίf¾ú¬ö¿ý (Therapy transcripts)ªº¤ÀªR¡Aµo²{¨ì¼ÖÆ[¨ú¦Vªº¯f¤H¦³¸û§Cªº¼~Æ{¶É¦V¡C³o¤]¤ä«ù¤FASQªºµo²{¡A¤]´N¬O»¡¸ÑÄÀ·®æ¬O§ïµ½¼~Æ{¶É¦Vªº¤ß²zªvÀø«ü¼Ð¡CPeterson
§ó¶i¤@¨Bªº¬ã¨sCAVE®Ä«×¡A¥H66¦ì¤j¾Ç¥Í©Ò¼gªº¦³Ãö©ó¹L¥h´X¦~¨Ãä³Ì¾Dªº¨â¥ó¨Æ¤§µu¤å¡A¤§«á¦A¶ñ¼gASQ»PBDI¡C µ²ªGµo²{¡G1.
¦]ªG¸ÑÄÀ(causal explanation)¤è¦¡¡GCAVE ¤À¼Æ©M
BDI¦³°ª¬ÛÃö¡C2. CAVE
©MASQ ¤]¦³ÅãµÛ¬ÛÃö¡C(
¤G)¡B CAVEPeterson and Seligman (1984)
¨Ï¥ÎCAVE¡A¹ï1900-1950¦~¶¡ªº´Î²y¶¤û¡A¶i¦æ¦º¤`²v(mortality)»P¿©¯f²v(morbidity)ªºÀɮ׬ã¨s ¡Cµ²ªGµo²{¡G1. An optimistic style for positive events predicted
longevity (r=.45, p<.01),
2. A pessimistic style for negative events showed
the opposite relationship (r= -.26, p<.08).
Peterson, Seligman, and Valliant (1988)
¹ïHarvard classes of 1939 to 1942 ¡]in the Grant Study), ªºªø´ÁÁa³e¬ã¨s(a longitudinal investigation)¡C µ²ªGµo²{¡GMore optimistic an individual was in 1946, the better his physical health in 1970, even when physical health and mental health at age 25 were controlled.
(
¤T)¡BThe Children¡¦s Attributional Style Questionnaire¡]CASQ¡^¡i¨àµ£Âk¦]·®æ°Ý¨÷¡j²¤¶¡G
¾A¥Î¦~ÄÖ¡G
48
ÓÃD¥ØÃD¥Ø¤º®e¡G°²³]«Ä¤l³B©ó¥¿¦V©Ît¦V¨Æ¥ó¤¤¡A¨Ã´£¨ÑÃö©ó¦¹¨Æ¥óªº¨âÓ¥i¯àì¦]¸ÑÄÀ¡A«Ä¤ln¦b³o¨âÓì¦]¤§¤¤¿ï¤@Ó¥L»{¬°¸û¦nªº¡C
³o¨âÓ¥i¯àì¦]ªº¿ï¾Ü¡A¥i¥H´ú±o«Ä¤lªºÂk¦]·®æ¡G
¨Ò¤l¡G¡§You go on a vacation with a group of people and
you have a good time:
(a) I was in a good mood (internal);
(b) The people I was with were in good moods
(external).¡¨
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1
¤À¡G¤º¦b¡Béw©Î¥þ±©Ê0
¤À¡G¥~¦b¡B¤£Ã©w©Î¯S®í©Ê3
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CASQ»PASQ¤@¼Ë¡A¥i±o¨ì¬Û¦Pªº¤l¤À¼Æ¡C(
¤T)¡BThe Children¡¦s Attributional Style Questionnaire¡]CASQ¡^¡i¨àµ£Âk¦]·®æ°Ý¨÷¡jCASQ
¦b¤ß²z´úÅç¤WªºÄÝ©Ê¡GCASQªº¤À¶qªí±o¤À¦p¦PASQ¡A¨ã¦³¾A«×ªº«H«×¤º³¡¤@P©Ê¡G¤º³¡¤@P©Ê¤j¦h¶W¹L
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ASQ¤¤©Ò°µªº¡A¦U¦Ûµ²¦X¦UÓ¤À¶qªí±o¨ì¤@²V¦X¤À¼Æ®É¡A·|¦³¸û°ªªº«H«×¡C¦A´ú«H«×¡G«e¡B«á´ú¶¡¶Z
6Ó¤ë®É¡ACASQªº¤À¼Æ¤´¦³¤@P©Ê(r = .71, .66) ¡A³oªí¥Ü¨àµ£ªºÂk¦]·®æ¬Oéw¤£Åܪº¡C¬Û¸û©óµL¼~Æ{¯gª¬ªº¨àµ£¡A¦³¼~Æ{¯gª¬ªº¨àµ£¹ït±¨Æ¥ó³q±`·|°µ¥X¤º¦bªº¡Béwªº»P¥þ±©ÊªºÂk¦]¡F
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6Ӥ뤤¬O§_·|¥X²{¼~Æ{¯gª¬¡C¥|¡B
Future Development in the Measurement of Explanatory Style1.
¥ý¤£ºÞ´Á«Ý(expectations)¦bRLHT»PHT¤¤©Ò§êºtªº¨¤¦â¡A¥H¤Î¹ï¼ÖÆ[©Ê®æ©M¸ÑÄÀ·®æªº¦³µÛÃþ¦üªºµo²{¡A¤@¨ÇÃö©ó¸ÑÄÀ·®æªº¬ã¨s¡A¤w¸g¥i¥Hª¾¹D¤£¦P¸ÑÄÀ·®æªº¤H¡A¹ï¥¼¨Ó·|¦³¤£¦Pªº´Á«Ý¡CMetalsky et al., (1993)
¬ã¨sÅã¥Ü¡G ¦¨ÁZ¸û§C¡A¥B±N¦Û¤vªº§C¦¨´N§@éw¥B¥þ±Âk¦]ªº¾Ç¥Í¡A·|¹w´Á¦Û¤v¦b¥¼¨Óªºªí²{¨Ì©å¦H¡C ³o¼Ëªº¹w´Á¥ç¥i¹w´úÓ¤Hªº±¡ºü§ïÅܪ¬ºA¡C¥|¡B
Future Development in the Measurement of Explanatory Style2.
¤@¨Ç¥ÎLOT(Life Orientation Test )¨Ó¿Å¶q¸ÑÄÀ·®æ¥H¤Î¼ÖÆ[©Ê®æªº¬ã¨s¡A¦³»á¬°¤£¦Pµo²{¡GCarver & Scheier (1992)
¡GASQ CP-CN ªº²V¦X¤À¼Æ»PLOT ¦³.10 ¨ì.20 ¤§¬ÛÃö¡CKamen (1996)
¡GLOT »PASQ CN ªº²V¦X¤À¼Æ¦³-.25 ªº¬ÛÃö¡CHjelle et al., (1996)
¡GLOT »PASQ CN-CN ªº²V¦X¤À¼Æ¦³.41 ªº¬ÛÃö¡CGillham et al., (1998)
¡G¦b¨âÓ¤£¦Pªº´ú¶qÂI¤W¡ALOT »PASQ CN-CN ªº²V¦X¤À¼Æ¦³.63 »P.41 ªº¬ÛÃö¡Aµo²{®Õ¥¿«áªº¬ÛÃö«Y¼Æ·|´£¤É¦Ü.77 »P.49 ¡C ¥H¤W¬ã¨sÅã¥Ü¥X .20¡ã.77ªº¬ÛÃö¡CÅãµM¦a¡A¬ã¨sªÌ»Ýn¹ï¸ÑÄÀ·®æ©M¼ÖÆ[©Ê®æ³o¨âÓ·§©À¶¡ªºÃö«Y¡A¶i¦æ¸û¬°ª½±µªº¬ã¨s¥|¡B
Future Development in the Measurement of Explanatory StyleClarifying the Optimism Construct
¡]¼á²M¼ÖÆ[ªº·§©À¡^¡GOptimism vs. Explanatory Style
¡]¼ÖÆ[ vs. ¸ÑÄÀ·®æªº·§©ÀÂç²M¡^¡G1.
¨Ï¥Î´dÆ[©M¼ÖÆ[¨Óªí¥Ü¸ÑÄÀ·®æ¡A¦³¥H¤U2ÂIª§½×¡G¼ÖÆ[©M´dÆ[¬°´¶³q»y¨¥¤¤ªºÃã·J¡A¦Ó«D¾Ç³N¥Î»y¡C
¹ït¦V¨Æ¥óªº¼ÖÆ[¬Ýªk¬°¥~¦bªº¡BÁ{®Éªº¡B¥H¤Î¥u¦³¼vÅT¤H¥Í¯S©wªº¨Æ¶µ¡F
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Future Development in the Measurement of Explanatory Style2. Abramson
µ¥¤H¡]1991¡^«ü¥X¥H´dÆ[©M¼ÖÆ[§@¬°Âk¦]ªº¤ÀÃþ¡A¥i¯à·|®e©ö¦]§Ú̪ºª½Ä±·Qªk¦Ó»~¸Ñ¼ÖÆ[´N¬O¤@ºØ¹w´Á ¡C ÁöµM¡A¼ÖÆ[©M´dÆ[¥i¯à»PÂk¦]©M¸ÑÄÀ·®æ¤@¼Ë¬O¦³¥Îªº¹w´ú¦]¤l¡C¦ý§Ú̦P·NAbramson±N³o¨âÓ¦]¤l¤¬¬Û¹jÂ÷¡A¦Ó«O¯d¹ïRLHT©MHTªº´Á«Ý¦¨¤À¡C³oºØ¬Ýªk¤]¥Î¦b³Ìªñµo®iªº·§©À¡G§Æ±æ(hopeful)»Pµ´±æ(hopeless) ¡A¥¦Ì¦³µÛ¬Û¦Pªºµ²ªG¡C3.
ÁöµM¸ÑÄÀ·®æ»P´dÆ[¦³³\¦h¬Û¦Pªº«áªG¡A¦ý³o¨Ã¤£ªí¥Ü§ÚÌn±N¨âªÌµø¬°¬Û¦Pºc©À¡C4.
³Ì«nªº¡A¦b¤j¦h¼Æªº¬ã¨s¤¤¡A¸ÑÄÀ·®æ»P¼ÖÆ[©Ê®æ¡A¥u¦³»´«×¨ì¤¤«×ªº¬ÛÃö ¡C¥|¡B
Future Development in the Measurement of Explanatory StyleClarifying the Optimism Construct
¡]¼á²M¼ÖÆ[ªº·§©À¡^¡GDimensions
¡]¦V«×ªº°ÝÃD¡^¡G¤£¦P¸ÑÄÀ·®æ¦V«×¶¡ªº¬ÛÃö¡A³q±`¤]¬Û·í§C¡A¯S§O¬O¦b¤º¦b¦V«×»P¨ä¥L¦V«×ªº¬ÛÃö¡C
¶V¨Ó¶V¦h°ÝÃD¦b±´°Q³o¨Ç¦V«×¬O§_¤Ï¬M³æ¤@ºc©À¡H¡]¸ÑÄÀ·®æ¦P®É¤]·Q¬ã¨s³o¨Ç¦V«×¡A¦b¾ãÅé·§©À¤¤¡A¬O§_¦û¬Ûµ¥ªº¤ñ«¡C¡^
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Future Development in the Measurement of Explanatory StyleOverlap With Other Psychological Constructs
¡G ¬ã¨sªÌ¹ï©ó±N¼ÖÆ[µø¬°¤ß²zºc©Àªº·Qªk·P¨ì¿³½ì¡AWatson & Clark (1984)
»{¬°¤@¨Ç¬Ý°_¨Ó¤£¦Pªº¤H®æ»P »{ª¾ºc©À¤Ï¬M¥X2 Ó°ò¦·§©ÀªººI±(facets)¡A³o¨âÓ °ò¦·§©À¬O¥¿¦V±¡·P¡]positive affectivity¡FPA¡^»P t¦V±¡·P¡]negative affectivity¡FNA¡^¡C ¦]¦¹¡A¤@¨Ç¨ä¥Lªººc©À¡A¹³¬O¯«¸g½è¡B¦Û´L¡B¼ÖÆ[ ¥H¤Î¸ÑÄÀ·®æµ¥¡AÀ³¸Ó©¼¦¹¬O¬ÛÃö¡C¦]¬°³o¨Çºc©À¡A ¨C¤@Ó³£¥i¥H¹w´ú¼~Æ{¯gª¬¡]depressing systems¡^¡A ³o¥i¯à´N¬O¦]¬°¥¦Ì³£»PNA ¦³Ãö³s¡C¥|¡B
Future Development in the Measurement of Explanatory Style¤ä«ù
Watson & ClarkªºÆ[ÂI¡GSmith et al., (1989)
¦b±Æ°£NA¦]¯Àªº¬ÛÃö«á¡A¼ÖÆ[©M¼~Æ{¯gª¬ªºÅãµÛ¬ÛÃö´N®ø¥¢¤F¡C¤Ï¹ï
Watson & ClarkªºÆ[ÂI¡GChang et al., (1997)
±±¨îPA »PNA «á¡A¼ÖÆ[»P´dÆ[¨ÌÂÂ¥i¥H¹w´ú¥DÆ[©¯ºÖ·P¡CLucas et al.,(1996)
¡G§Q¥Î¦h«¯S½è¡Ð¦hºØ¤èªk¯x°}¡]multitrait-multimethod matrix ¡^ªº¤èªk¨Ó¤ÀªR¡A±o¨ì¼ÖÆ[»PNA ¦b¹w´ú¥Í¬¡º¡·N«×®É¡A¬O¥i¥H°Ï¿ëªº¤£¦PÅܶµ¡C ³oÓ¬ã¨sªºª[²§¡AÁÙ»Ýn§ó¦h¦P®É¦Ò¼{¼ÖÆ[©M¸ÑÄÀ·®æ ªº¬ã¨s¨Ó¶i¤@¨B±´¯Á¡C¥|¡B
Future Development in the Measurement of Explanatory Style¡@
Optimism depressive
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NA
Negative affection
¥|¡B
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¡]·Ç½T©Ê¡A¦¹³Bªº·Ç½T©Ê«üÂk¦]»P¯u¹êªº±¡¹Ò¬O§_¬Û²Å¡^¡G¤j¦h¼Æ¬ã¨sªÌ¦b¬ã¨s¸ÑÄÀ·®æ»P¼ÖÆ[©Ê®æ®É·|°²³]¶V¼ÖÆ[ªºª¬ºA·|¶V¦n¡C³q±`¡A¬ã¨s«ü¥X¨ã¼ÖÆ[¸ÑÄÀ·®æªºÓÅé¤ñ¨º¨Ç¸û´dÆ[ªº¦P¾«¡A¦³§ó¦nªº¥DÆ[©¯ºÖ·P¥H¤Î¤ß²z°·±dª¬ºA¡C
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¥Ø«e¹ï©ó¸ÑÄÀ·®æ»P¼ÖÆ[©Ê®æªº¬ã¨s¤j¦h©¿µø·Ç½T©Ê©Ò§êºtªº¨¤¦â¡C
Taylor & Brown (1998)
¥D±i¡A¼ÖÆ[¶É¦V¬O¾AÀ³Àô¹Òªº¤@ºØ°¾»~Âk¦]¡CEx. «D¼~Æ{ÓÅé¹ï¥L̦ۤv±±¨î¨Æ¥óªº¯à¤O¡A¦³¹L°ªµû»ù¡F¤Ï¤§¡A¼~Æ{ÓÅé¹ï¦Û§Ú±±¨î·Pªºµû»ù¸û§C¡A¦ý³q±`¸û¬°·Ç½T¡C¶EÀø¼~Æ{ªº±M¬ìÂå¥Í«ü¥X¡G¼~Æ{¯g±wªÌ·|¹L«×»{©w¨Æ¥óªºt¦V«áªG¡A¥B§C¦ô¦Û¤v¹ïÀô¹Òªº´x±±¯à¤O¡C
¥|¡B
Future Development in the Measurement of Explanatory StyleµM¦Ó¡G
¼ÖÆ[¥D¸qªÌªº§C¦ôt¦V¨Æ¥ó¡A¥i¯à·|¦]¦¹¦b±¹ï°ÝÃD®É±¹¤â¤£¤Î¡C
¹ï¦¨¥\ªº¥i¯à©Ê§@¹L«×¹w´Á¡A¤]¥i¯à¨ÏÓÅé¦b¦¨¥\¾÷·|´ù¯íªº¨Æ±¡¤W®ö¶Oºë¤O¡C
¦P¼Ë¦a¡AÓÅé±Mª`¦b¹ï°ÝÃD¤£¥¿½Tªº´Á«Ý¤W¡A§Y¨Ï³oÓ´Á«Ý¬O¼ÖÆ[ªº¡A¤]µ´«D¸Ñ¨M°ÝÃDªº¦n¤èªk¡C
¡@
¥¼¨Óªº¬ã¨sÀ³¸Ó±´°Q·Ç½T©Ê¦b§@·~ªí²{»P°·±d¤W ©Ò§êºtªº¨¤¦â¡C¤¡B
Conclusion1.
¼ÖÆ[»P¸ÑÄÀ·®æ»Ýn¡G2.
¸ÑÄÀ·®æ¬O§_¬O³æ¤@ªººc©À¦V«×¡H¤¡B
Conclusion3.
¸ÑÄÀ·Ç½T©Ê¬O¥¼¨Ó¬ã¨sªº«ÂI¡G4.
½T»{¼ÖÆ[»P¸ÑÄÀ·®æ¬O¼vÅT¥DÆ[©¯ºÖ·Pªº¥Dn¾÷¨î¡A ¨Ã¥Bn§ä¨ì¼ÖÆ[»P¸ÑÄÀ·®æªº¥Dn¤º¦b¾÷¨î¡C ¦pªG¼ÖÆ[¥H¤Î¸ÑÄÀ·®æ»P¥DÆ[©¯ºÖ·Pªº½T¦³¦]ªGÃö«Y¡A «h³o¤è±¥¼¨Óªº¬ã¨s¡A´N¥i¥HÀ°§U³\¦h¤H¨Ó§ïµ½ ¥L̪º¥Í¬¡«~½è¡CSocial Perception and Social Cognition
ªÀ·|ª¾Ä±¡]
Social Perception¡GUnderstanding Others¡^¡G ¤@ºØ¬ã¨s§Ú̦p¦ó¹ï§O¤H²£¥Í¦L¶H¡A¤Î¦p¦ó¹ï§O¤H¦æ¬°¸ÑÄÀªº¾Ç°Ý¡C¥Dn¥DÃD¬°¡G¤H»Úª¾Ä±¡B¦L¶H§Î¦¨¡BÂk¦]¡B¤Î¦L¶H§ïÅܵ¥¡CªÀ·|»{ª¾
(Social Cognition¡GThinking about Others and the Social World)¡G ±´°Q§Ú̦p¦ó¸ÑÄÀ¡B¤ÀªR¡BÂkÃþ¡B°O¾Ð¡B¤Î¨Ï¥ÎªÀ·|°T®§¨Ó¹ï¥@¬É°µ§PÂ_»P¨M©wªº¬ã¨s¡CªÀ·|¤ß²z¾Ç®a¹ï¤HÃþ«ä¦ÒÃþ«¬ªº°²³]»PºtÅÜ
¡]
1
¡B¤@P©Êªº°l¨DªÌ¡]Consistent seeker¡^¡G ¬Û«H¸Û«Hªº¥@¬É¡A°l¨D«H©À¡BºA«×»P¦æ¬° ªº¤@P©Ê¡C2
¡B¤Ñ¯uªº¬ì¾Ç®a¡]Naive scientist¡^¡G ¤Z¨Æ²`«ä¼ô¼{ªº²z©Ê«ä¦Ò¡A°l¨D¥¿½T©Ê¡C3
¡B»{ª¾ªº§[¶ÞªÌ¡]Cognitive miser¡^¡G ³B¨Æ®É¡A¥H¸gÅç¡B±¶®|¦¡ªº·P©Ê¤è¦¡¬° «ä¦Ò¡A°l¨D®ÄªG¡C4
¡B¾÷°Êªºµ¦²¤ªÌ¡]Motivated tactician¡^¡G ¨ÌÀH°Ê¾÷¡B¯à¤O¦Ó¨M©w«ä¦Òµ¦²¤ ¡]¬On²`«ä¼ô¼{©Îª½±µ±Ä±¶®|¦¡«ä¦Ò¡^.ªÀ·|¤ß²z¾Ç®a¹ï¤H©Êªº°ò¥»°²³]ºtÅÜ
Influence of Contexts and Expectancies
Perceptual set
¡]ª¾Ä±¤ß¦V¡^FOX; OWL; SNAKE; TURKEY; SWAN; D?CK
BOB; RAY; DAVE; BILL; HENRY; D?CK
§i¶D§Ú§A¬Ý¨ì¤F¤°»ò¡H
¾÷°Êªºµ¦²¤ªÌ°²³]¡G
Dual Process Model§i¶D§Ú§A³Ì³ßÅw¤U±þ¤@Ó³y«¬¡H
§A¬Ý¨ì¤F¤°»ò¡H
§i¶D§Ú§A³Ì³ßÅw¤U±þ¤@Ó³y«¬¡H
§Aªº²´·ú»EµJ¦b¤°»ò¦a¤è¡H
¡@
§Ú̦p¦ó¸ÑÄÀ²Ä¤@¦L¶H»PÂk¦]²{¶H¡H
¤S¦p¦ó¸ÑÄÀªÀ·|¤ÀÃþ¤Î¨èªO¦L¶Hªºµ²ªG¡H
¤ß²z¾Ç®a°w¹ï¤HÃþ¹ï¦UºØ°T®§ªº³B²z¤è¦¡¡A³Ð³y¦UºØ·§©À¤Î¼Ò«¬¨Ó±À½×¤Î¸ÑÄÀ¤HÃþ«H®§³B²zªº¼Ò¦¡¡C
¨ä¤¤¤@ӳ̦³¦Wªº·§©À¡A´N¬O°ò¼Ò (Schemas)¡C(
¤@)¡B°ò¼Ò¬O¤HÃþ°T®§³B²zªº¡u¤ßÆF¦a¹Ï¡v(
¤G)¡B°ò¼Ò¬O¤H¤H³£¬O¤ß²z¾Ç®aªº¥Dn¤u¨ã(
¥|)¡B°ò¼Ò¹B§@ªº¥|Ó¶¥¬q(
¤)¡B°ò¼Ò¹B§@ªº¼Ò¦¡»P¯S¼x¡G(
¤»)¡B°ò¼Ò¹B§@¦b¤H»Ú¤¬°Ê¤¤ªº¼vÅT¡G(
¤C)¡B°ò¼Ò¤ñ¸û¥i¯à³Q»~¥Îªº®É¾÷°ò¼Ò¬O¤HÃþ°T®§³B²zªº¡u¤ßÆF¦a¹Ï¡v
¤@¯ë¦Ó¨¥¡A°ò¼Ò¬O«ü¡G¤HÃþ¹ï¦PÃþ©Î¬ÛÃöªº¤ß²z°T®§
¥[¥H¾ã¦X¦Ó§Î¦¨ªº»{ª¾¬[ºc©Î²z½×¡F¥¦±`³Q¥Î¨Ó ¿ëÃÑ¡B¤ÀªR¡BÂk¯Ç¡B°O¾Ð¤Î«Øºc¬Û¦ü©Î¬ÛÃöªº ¨ë¿E©Î°T®§¡C °ò¼Ò²£¥Íªº¥i¯àì¦]¡G¥Ñ©ó§Ų́C¤Ñ©Ò±¹ïªº ¸ê°T«D±`¤§¦h¡A¦]¦¹§ÚÌ¥²¶·±N°T®§¤Àªù§OÃþ¡A ¥H¨Ï¦UºØ°T®§¯à¤«µM¦³§Ç¡A®e©ö³B²z¡A¦Ó°ò¼Ò ´N¬O§Ú̹ï°T®§¤ÀÃþªº°ò¥»¬[ºc¡C¡¯Â²³æ¦a»¡¡A°ò¼Ò´N¬O¬Y¤@¯S©w±¡¹Ò©Î¨Æ¥ó¦³Ãö°T®§
ªº²Õ´¬[ºc¡C§A¯à§ä¨ì°ò¼Ò¨Ó¬Ý³o±i¹Ï¶Ü¡H
½Ð¥[¼ÐÃD
½Ð¥[¼ÐÃD
´ö¥§½w½w¦a±q¹Ô¤l¤Wª¦°_¡A¥´ºâ°kÂ÷³oÓ§x¹Ò¡C¥L¿ðºÃ¤F¤@¤U¡AµM«á«ä¦Ò¡C¨Æ±¡¶i®iªº¤£¤Ó¶¶§Q¡AÅý¥L³Ì·P¦]ÂZªº¨Æ±¡¬O¥L³QÀ£¦í¤F¡A¯S§O¬O¦]¬°¹ï¤èªº§ðÀ»¤w¸g´î®z¤F¡C¥L¦Ò¶q¦Û¤v¥Ø«eªº³B¹Ò¡AÀ£¦í¥Lªº«l¹DÁöµM«Ü±j¡A¦ý¬O¥L»{¬°¦Û¤v¥i¥H¬ð¯}¥¦¡CµM¦Ó¡A¥Lª¾¹D¦Û¤vªº®É¾÷¥i¯à¥²¶·«Ü§¹¬ü¡C´ö¥§ª¾¹D³o¬O¦]¬°¥L¦´Áªº¯ó²v¡A¥L¨ü¨ìªºÃg»@¦p¦¹ÄY¼F¡A±q¥Lªº¨¤«×¨Ó¬Ý¡A¹ê¦b¤Ó¹LÄY¼F¤F¡C¾ãÓ³B¹Ò¶V¨Ó¶V¥O¤H®À§é¡FÀ£¤O½wºC¦Ó³æ½Õ¦a«ùÄò¥[¦b¥L¨¤W¤Ó¤[¤F¡C¥L³Q§N»ÅµL±¡¦a«À£µÛ¡C²{¦b´ö¥§¶V¨Ó¶V¼««ã¤F¡C¥Lª¾¹D¥Lªº¦¨±Ñ·|¨ú¨M©ó¥L¤U´X¬í¤¤©Ò±Ä¨úªº¦æ°Ê
(Anderson, 1984)¡C½Ð¥[¼ÐÃD
¨D
·R ªº ¤º ¤ß ½L ºâ°ò¼Ò¬O¤H¤H³£¬O¤ß²z¾Ç®aªº¥Dn¤u¨ã
¦b¤H»Ú¤¬°Ê¤è±¡A§Ú̹ï¨ä¥L¤Hªº§PÂ_¡A¤]·|¹³¬ì¾Ç®a¦b»`¶°ª«²z¨ë¿E¤@¼Ë¡Aª`·N¦UºØ¤Hªº¥~§Î©Î¯S¼x¡A¤ñ¸û¦U¦¡¦U¼Ëªº¤H¡A¬Û¤¬¶¡ªº¬Û¦ü»P¬Û²§©Ê¡A¨Ã¤ÀªR¦UºØ¤H̶¡ªº¬ÛÃö©Ê¡C
¥¤é§ÚÌ»P¥L¤H¤¬°Ê®É¡A³o¨Ç°T®§¦b¸gÅç²Ö¿n«á¡A§ÚÌ´N·|¦ÛµM¦a¥[¥H¤Àªù§OÃþ¡A¨Ã±N¥¦Ì¦s¤J°O¾Ð¤¤¡C
·í¥H«á¦³¯¥Í¤H¥X²{®É¡A§ÚÌ´N¥i¥Hª½±µ³ê°_¹L¥hªº¸gÅç¡Aª½Ä±¦a¨Ì¿à¹L¥hªº¸gÅç¡A³w¦æ¹ï³oÓ¤H§@©Ê®æ´yz¡]²Ä¤@¦L¶H¡^¤Îµû»ù¡A¹w´ú¥L¥¼¨Óªº¥i¯à¦æ¬°¡A¨Ã¹ï¥L²{¦³ªº¦æ¬°§@¥X¸ÑÄÀ¤ÎÂk¦]¡]
Fiske, 1993¡^¡C§A¹ï¥L²£¥Í¤°»ò¦L¶H¡H
¦L¶H§Î¦¨
²Ä¤@¦L¶H
1).
¦b¤H»Ú¥æ©¹¹Lµ{·í¤¤¡A§Ú̱`±`¾ÌµÛ¤@ÂIÂI°T®§´N¶}©l §@§PÂ_¡]¤@Ó¦³«f«Cªº¤H¡A¤@Ó²z¥ÀYªº¤H¡A¤@ÓÀ¹ ¾¥Ã誺¤H¡A¤@Ó¤f«rÂb·}ªº¤H¡^2).
¦b§PÂ_¥L¤H®É¡A¨ä¹ê§Ú̸£¤¤¤w¸g¦³¤@Ó¹ï¦U¦¡¦U¼Ë ©Ê®æªº¤H§@¤ÀÃþªº¡u°ò¼Ò¡v¦b¹B§@¡C ¡]³¯¤õ¤h»P³¯¤å«ÛªºÓ©Ê¤ñ¸û¡^¡]¤@¨£ÄÁ±¡ªºµo¥Í¡^¨C¤@Ó¤H³£¬O¤ß²z¾Ç®a
(¤ºÁô¤H®æ²z½×) ±N¤H¤ÀÃþ¡A¤]¬O¤HÃþ¥Í¦sªº°ò¥»ªk«h¡A¦]¬°¦p¦¹¤~¯à¹w´ú ¦æ¬°¡Aª¾¹D¦p¦ó»P¥L¤H¬Û³B¡C ¡]¨Ò¦p¡G¦Ñ®v·|¤£·|·í¤H¡A§U±Ð¦n¤£¦nÁ¿¸Ü¡A¦P¾Ç·|¤£·| ɧڵ§°O¡^¡A ¦ý¦p¦¹¤ÀÃþ«o±`·|¨Ï¤H³´¤J¥ý¤J¬°¥D¡A¶Ã¶K¼ÐÅÒªº«áªG¥X²{¡C¤ºÁô¤H®æ²z½×ªº¨Ò¤l¡G
½Ðª`·N¬A©·¤¤©Ò¦C¥X¨Óªº§Î®eµü¡Aþ¤@Ӭݰ_¨Ó©M¥y¤l¥»¨³Ì¦X¾A¡C
1.
¬ù¿«ºë¤O¥R¨K¦³½Ä«l¦Ó¥B¡]Áo©ú¡B¤£Áo©ú¡^2.
º¿ÄR¤jÁx¡B¨ã¤Ï«q©Ê¦Ó¥B¡]¥~¦V¡B¤º¦V¡^3.
³ìÁo©ú¡B¬¡¼â¥B¡]D¡B½G¡^4.
¬Ã¦³¾y¤O¡BÁo©ú¦Ó¥B¡]¥O¤H³ß·R¡B¤£¥O¤H³ß·R¡^5.
Ĭ¬À¶}®Ô¡B¿n·¥¦Ó¥B¡]¦³¾y¤O¡B¨S¦³¾y¤O¡^6.
¦N©i°ª¤j¡B^«T¦Ó¥B¡]¦³½ì¡B¤£¦³½ì¡^Âk¦]²z½×ªº°ò¥»·§©À
Âk¦]¾úµ{¡]¹ï¤H¤Î¹ï¨Æ¤ÀÃþ«á¡A²£¥Íªº¦]ªG±À½×«ä¦Ò¡^
1).
±N¨Æ±¡µo¥Íªºì¦]¡A´M§ä¥X¨Ó¡A¥H¦¹±o¨ì¹w´ú»P±±¨î2).
Âk¦]³q±`¦³¨âºØ¦V«×¡G ¤º¦b©Ê®æÂk¦] »P ¥~¦b±¡¹ÒÂk¦]3).
¤H±`¶É¦V©ó§@¦Û§QÂk¦]¦Ó¤£·|§@¦Û§Ú®À±ÑÂk¦]Âk¦]ªº«áªG
¦Û§Ú¹w¨¥ÅçÃÒ¤Ó«i´±¤F
?©Î¤£ª¾¦n¤ï¡H«O«ù°ª«×¦Û«H¤ß
°ò¼Ò¹B§@·|±a°Ê¤H¥h¥D°Ê¸àÄÀ°T®§
°ò¼Ò¹B§@·|±a°Ê¤H¥h¥D°Ê¸àÄÀ°T®§
Âk¦]
¡]Attribution¡GUnderstanding the Causes of Others' Behavior¡^¤@¼Ë¬Ýªá¨â¼Ë±¡¡Fªá¶}ªá¸¨¨â¬Û©y
¤ºÁô¤H®æ²z½×¡GÂk¦]ªº¥ý³Æ¯à¤O¡G1.
¤ºÁô¤H®æ²z½×¡G¤@ºØ¤H®æ¯S½è¬ÛÃö©Ê©Ò²Õ¦¨ªº°ò¼Ò¡A¤HÌ·|¨Ï¥Î¥¦¨Ó¹ï§O¤H§Î¦¨¾ãÅ骺¦L¶H¡A¨Ò¦p¡G¦pªG¦³¤@Ó¤H«Ü¿Ë¤Á¡A§ÚÌ¥i¯à¥H¦¹±À½×¥L·|«Ü¤j¤è¡A®e©ö¬Û³B¡C2.
ª¾¹D¤@Ó¬°¤HºB´nªº¤H·|¨Ï§Ú̹w´Á¥L¤]«Ü¼ö±¡¡C§Ú̹ï¯S½è¶¡¬Û¤¬Ápôªº´Á±æºc¦¨¤F¤ºÁô¤H®æ²z½×¡]implicit personality theories¡^¡C³o¨Ç²z½×¤Þ¾É§Ú̹ï§O¤H§Î¦¨½ÆÂøªº¦L¶H¨Ã¥[¥H²Ó½o¤Æ¡C3.
³q±`¡A¤H̦ü¥G»{¬°¤j¦h¼Æ¥¿¦Vªº¯S¼x¬Û¤¬Ãö³s¡A¦Ót¦Vªº¯S½è«h²Õ¦¨¥t¥~¤@ÂO¡C·í¤HÌ¥õ¿à¤ºÁô¤H®æ²z½×®É¡A¥Ḻq¬Y¤Hªº¤@Ó¦n¯S½è¡A±À½×¥L¨ã¦³³\¦h¥¿¦Vªº¯S½è¡A¤]¥i±q¤@ÓÃaªº«~¦æ¡A±À½×¥L¦³³\¦ht¦Vªº¯S½è¡Cª¾¹D¬Y¤H«Ü´dÆ[¡A¦h¼Æ¤H¤]·|»{¬°¥L¤]©ö«ã¡B§Nºz¡BªÅµê©MÁB®ð¡CBiases in Attribution
Âk¦]ªº¤ß²z±¶®|¡G¤@¨Ç±`µo¥Íªº¿ù»~Âk¦]
(
¥uÅ¥¨ì·QÅ¥ªº¸Ü¡A¥u¬Ý¨ì·Q¬Ýªº¨Æª«)¡G¤@¡B
The Fundamental Attribution Error¤G¡B
Actor-Observer Difference¤T¡B
Self-serving Biases¥|¡B
Culture and Attributions¡@
Biases in Attribution
The Fundamental Attribution Error (
°ò¥»Âk¦]Á[»~)¡GThe tendency to make internal attribution in
explaining the behavior of other. (Lee Ross, 1977)
¹ï©ó¥L¤H¦æ¬°ªºì¦]¡A§Ú̳q±`·|¥H¤º¦b©Ê±¡¨Ó±ÀÂ_¡A¦Ó¤Ö¥Î¥~¦b±¡¹Ò¨Ó±ÀÂ_¡C
=>
·í§Ú̱À½×§O¤H¦æ¬°ªº°_¦]®É¡A³q±`·|»{¬°¬O¦]¬°¥L̬O¨º¤@Ãþªº¤H¡A¦Ó«D¥LÌ©Ò³Bªº±¡¹Ò¡A©Î¬O¥LÌ©Ò§êºtªº¨¤¦â©Ò³y¦¨ªº¡]§C¦ô¤FªÀ·|±¡¹Òªº¼vÅT¤O¡^¡C¢I
µo¥Í°ò¥»Âk¦]Á[»~ªº¥i¯àì¦]¡G1. The Role of Predictability Need
¡]¹w´úªº»Ý¨D¡^2. Perceptual Salience
¡]ª¾Ä±ÅãµÛ©Ê¡^(Taylor & Fiske, 1975) , actor
¤Îobserver¤§¹êÅç¡CBiases in Attribution
Actor-Observer Difference (
¦æ°ÊªÌ»PÆ[¹îªÌªºÂk¦]®t²§)¡GActors give More weight to External Factors than
do observers.
¹ï¥L¤H¦æ¬°¥H©Ê±¡Âk¦]¡A¦ý¹ï¦Û¤vªº¦æ¬°«o¥H¥~¦b±¡¹Ò¨ÓÂk¦]¡C
¢I
¦æ°ÊªÌ»PÆ[¹îªÌªº¥DnÂk¦]®t²§¡G1.
¦æ°ÊªÌ¡G2.
Æ[¹îªÌ¡G@
¦æ°ÊªÌ»PÆ[¹îªÌÂk¦]®t²§ªº¥i¯à¥Dnì¦]¡G1.
ª¾Ä±ÅãµÛ©Ê¡G¦Û¤v¬Ý¤£¨ì¦Û¤v¡C2.
·í¨ÆªÌ¤ñÆ[¹îªÌ´x´¤§ó¦h¦³Ãö©ó¥L¦Û¤v¥»¨ªº°T®§¡Cactor
¤Îobserver¤§¹êÅçBiases in Attribution
Self-Serving Attributions Enhance and Protect
Self-Esteem
Biases in Attribution
3.
¦Û§QÂk¦]°¾®t¡]self-serving attribution¡^¡G±N¦¨¥\Âk¥\©ó¦Û¤v¡A±N¥¢±ÑÂk©S©ó¥L¤Hªº¶É¦V¡C(1).
¬°¤FºûÅ@¦Û´L(2).
¥i±oª¾¸ê°Tªº¤£¦P4.
¦Û§Ú®À±ÑÂk¦]¡]self-defeating attribution¡^¡G±N¥¢±Ñ©ÎºG¼@Âk©S©ó¦Û¤v¡A¦Ó¦¨¥\Âk©ó¥L¤Hªº¶É¦V¡C(1).
³q±`µo¥Í¦b¤£·|«OÅ@¦Û¤v¡]¤×¨ä¬O¦Û´LªººûÅ@¡^¡A©Î±w¦³¼~Æ{¯gªÌªº¨¤W¡C(2).
¥t¥~¡A¤@¨Ç¡]¹y®É¡^¾D¨ü¨ì´d¼@ªº¤H¡A¤]·|¦³³oºØÂk¦]¶É¦V¡A¦p¨ü¨ì±j¼ÉªÌ¡A±wµ´¯gªÌ¡A¨ü¤V¤Òh«ÝªÌ¡A¤E¤G¤@¾_¨a¨ü®`ªÌ¡A¤õ¨a¨ü®`ªÌ¡C(3).
¨ü®`ªÌ¦Û³dªºì¦]¡A¦³¤@³¡¤À¬O¨ü¨ì¤H̦³¡u¤½¥¥@¬Éªº«H©À¡v¤§·Qªk¡C¤H̳q±`·|¥HÃa¨Æ¥uµo¥Í¦bÃa¤H¨¤W¡A¨Ó§K°£¦Û¤v·|¹J¨ìÃa¨Æªº®£Äß¡AµM¦Ó³o¼Ëªº«H©À¡A«oè¦nÄþ³d¤F¨ü®`ªÌ¡A¦Ó©¿²¤¤F©Î´î»´¤F¥h°l¨s¥[®`ªÌªº³d¥ô¡CSeligman(1987,1991)
ªº¸ÑÄÀ·®æ(explanatory style) ¼ÖÆ[ªÌ»P´dÆ[ªÌªºÂk¦]·®æ¡G¦Û§Ú°¾®tªºÂk¦]
»P ¯u¹êÂk¦]ªº§à¾Ü ¡H¦b¯u¹ê¥Í¬¡¤¤¡A§C¦Û´LªÌ³q±`¤ñ¸û°l¨D¯u½TªºÂk¦]¡A¦Ó°ª¦Û´LªÌ³q±`¤ñ¸û°l¨D±¡ºüº¡¨¬»PÓV¸ÑªºÂk¦]
¡]¤@ºØ¤ß²z¨¾½Ã¾÷Â઺¹B¥Î¡^¡C=>
¤@Ó¬O¤ñ¸û¯u¹ê¦ýµhWªºÂk¦]¡A¥t¤@Ó¬O¤ñ¸û¤£¥¿½T¦ý§Ö¬¡ªºÂk¦]¡C¨º¤@Ó¬O¤ñ¸û¦X²z©Î¾A·íªºÂk¦]©O¡H
Biases in Attribution
@
¤£¦P¤å¤Æ¤¤ (Cultural difference)©ÒÅã²{ªº°ò¥»Âk¦]Á[»~¡G1.
Ó¤H¥D¸qªÀ·|ªÌ¶É¦V©ó§@¤º¦bÂk¦]¡C2.
¦ý¶°Åé¥D¸qªÀ·|ªÌ¤Ï¦Ó¶É¦V©ó§@±¡¹ÒÂk¦]¡C3.
¬°¤°»ò¡H³o¨â±i¹Ï¤¤ªºþ¤@³¡¥÷¡A
¹ï§A¦Ó¨¥¬O¤ñ¸ûÅã²´ªº¡H
Optimistic explanatory style
Handbook of positive psychology
(Eds.) C.R. Snyder & Shane J. Lopez (2002)
Oxford University press NY: New York
«e¨¥
Optimism
¡G1. conceptualized and assessed in a variety of ways,
2. has been linked to :
1). positive mood and good morale,
2). perseverance and effective problem solving,
3). achievement in a variety of domains,
4). popularity,
5). good health,
6). even to long life and
7). freedom from trauma.
What is Optimistic explanatory style?
What are the origins of explanatory style?
Directions for future research:
Explanatory style as positive psychology
¤@¡B
History: from learned helplessness to explanatory style1.
¾Ç¨ÓµL§U·P¬O·½¦Û¹ï°Êª«ªº¬ã¨s¡GLearned helplessness was first described by psychologists studying animal learning (Overmier & Seligman, 1967; Seligman & Maier, 1967).
2.
¤Wz¬ã¨s¥i¤£¯A¤Î»{ª¾¾úµ{¡A¦Ó°µ¯ÂS-Rªº ¸ÑÄÀ¡CFor example, perhaps the dogs learned that holding still when shocked somehow decreased pain. If so, then they held still in the second situation as well, because this response was previously reinforced.
¤@¡B
History: from learned helplessness to explanatory style3.
¦@³mªº¬ã¨s³]p¡Aªº¼á²M¤F¤Wzªºª§Ä³4.
¾Ç¨ÓªºµL§U·P¡A¥i¥H¸g¥Ñ¦A«×ªº¤ÏÀ³ Ápµ²¦Ó¯}°£¡C The animal¡¦s expectation of response-outcome independence is challenged during the ¡§therapy¡¨ experience, and hence learning occurs.¤@¡B
History: from learned helplessness to explanatory style1.
2.
¤£¥i±±¨îªºÃa¨Æ¥ó¨Ï¤HµJ¼{¡A¦ý¬O¦³§K¬Ì®ÄªG¡C Uncontrollable bad events made anxiety and depression more likely. Previous exposure to controllable events immunized people against learned helplessness.3.
µL§U·P¤]¥i¸g¥Ñ¤Ï¨î¬ù¦Ó¥h°£¡CSimilarly, forcible exposure to contingencies reversed helplessness deficits.
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History: from learned helplessness to explanatory style°Êª«»P¤HÃþªº¥Dn¤£¦PÂI¡G
1.
Ãa¨Æ¥ó¤ñ¦n¨Æ¥ó¹ï¤HÃþªº¼vÅT¸û¤j¡C Uncontrollable bad events seem much more likely than uncontrollable good events to produce helplessness among human beings, probably because people are able to devise coherent (if not always veridical) accounts for why good things happen to them.2.
¤HÌ·|¥h¥D°Ê«Øºc¨Æ¥ó¡G¤H¬O¥i¥H¿ï¾Ü¥Ln ªº«ä¦Ò¤è¦¡¡G People can construe events in ways that go far beyond their literal controllability.For example, religion provides a worldview that can blunt the effects of not being able to control events.
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History: from learned helplessness to explanatory style3.
(Vicarious helplessness)
Problem-solving difficulties can be produced in people if they simply see someone else exposed to uncontrollability (Brown & Inouye, 1978).
4.
¹ÎÅé©ÊªºµL§U·P¬V¡GSmall groups of people can be made helpless by exposure to uncontrollable events.
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History: from learned helplessness to explanatory stylePeterson et al., (1993) proposed three formal criteria with which to judge the goodness of an application.
¡]¾Ç¨ÓµL§U·Pªº¥DnÃöÁä¦]¯À¡^1. Objective noncontingency.
¡]¤ÏÀ³»P¨ë¿E¬O«ÈÆ[¦aµLÃö³s©Ê¡^2. Cognitive mediation.
¡]»{ª¾ªº¤¤¤¶¡^3. Cross-situation generality of passive behavior.
¡]±¡¹ÒªºÃþ¤Æ¡^¾Ç¨ÓµL§U·Pªº¬ÛÃö«áªG¡G
cognitive retardation, low self-esteem,
sadness, reduced aggression,
immunosupperession,
and physical illness
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History: from learned helplessness to explanatory style¨äÀ³¥Îªº¼sªx©Ê¡G
Using these criteria, then, good applications include
¡G depression,academic, athletic, and vocational failure;
worker burnout,
deleterious psychological effects of crowding,
unemployment , noise pollution,
chronic pain, aging, mental retardation, and epilepsy;
and passivity among ethnic minorities
(see Peterson et al., 1993, Table7-1).
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History: from learned helplessness to explanatory styleAbramson et al., (1978)
¥ø¹Ï±N¾Ç¨ÓªºµL§U·PÀ³¥Î¦b Âk¦]²z½×ªºµ²ºc¤W¡]¦p Weine, 1974¡^Attributional reformulation and explanatory style (ARTH)
¦]¦Ó²£¥Í¡CAn explanatory style characterized by internal, stable, and global explanations for bad events has been described as pessimistic,
and the opposite style, characterizes by external, unstable, and specific explanations for bad events, has been described as optimistic
(Buchanan & Seligman, 1995).
Explanatory style is a dispositional risk factor.
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History: from learned helplessness to explanatory style1. Attributional Style Questionnaire (ASQ).
Explanatory style typically is measured with a self-report questionnaire called the Attributional Style Questionnaire (ASQ).
Explanatory style based on bad events usually has more robust correlates than Explanatory style based on good events, although correlations are typically in the opposite directions (Peterson, 1991).
2. Content Analysis of Verbatim Explanations
(CAVE)
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Origins of explanatory style¸ÑÄÀ·®æ¬O¥i¥H§ïÅܪº¡A©Ò¥H¼~Æ{¬O¥i¥HªvÀøªº¡C
Explanatory style therefore is malleable.
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Origins of explanatory style¸ÑÄÀ·®æ¬O·½°_©ó¤°»ò¾÷¨î¡H
¡]¤@¡^Genetics
¡]¤G¡^ Parents
¡]¤T¡^Teachers
¡]¥|¡^ Media
¡]¤¡^Trauma
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Origins of explanatory styleSchulman, Keith, and Seligman (1993) found that explanatory styles of monozygotic twins were more highly correlates than the explanatory styles of dizygotic twins (r = .48 vs. r = .00).
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Origins of explanatory styleThe relevant data prove inconclusive.
We assume that the explanatory style of children can be affected by their parents through simple modeling. Children are most likely to imitate those whom they perceive as powerful and competent, and most parents, although not all, fit this description
(Bandura, 1977)
If, for example, children repeatedly hear their parents give internal, stable, and global explanations for negative events, they are likely to adopt these pessimistic interpretations for themselves.
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Origins of explanatory styleWe know that children from happy and supportive homes are more likely as adults to have an optimistic explanatory style
(Franz, McClelland, Weinberger, & Peterson, 1994).
Thus, optimism is fostered and nurtured through a series of confidence-building experience.
Parents and caregivers face the difficult task of providing appropriate challenges that allow these children to exercise control over the environment.
If children experience repeated failures at a critical age, they may learn that nothing they do makes a difference
(Seligman, Reivich, Jaycox, & Gillham, 1995).
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Origins of explanatory styleAs teachers administer feedback about children¡¦s performance, their comments may affect children¡¦s attributions about their successes and failures in the classroom.
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Origins of explanatory stylePictures of victims are displayed repeatedly; reporters review the sequence of events repeatedly; various professionals analyze the causes and effects repeatedly.
In short, the medium ruminates on the violence, tacitly encouraging the viewer to do the same, and such rumination may take a toll, strengthening and cementing into place a pessimistic explanatory style
(Nolen-Hoeksema, 1987).
It is not in the interest of networks to place temporal or specific parameters on a story.
Instead, they benefit from interpreting a story from a pessimistic vantage, specifying the stability and globality of its impact, and thereby enlarging the story¡¦s import.
¤G¡B
Origins of explanatory styleExperiencing a significant trauma (e.g., death of a parent, rape, incest) had a more pessimistic explanatory style than those students who had never experienced trauma.
Gold (1986) found that women who had been sexually victimized during their childhood and adolescence were more likely to have a pessimistic explanatory style than were women who had not been sexually victimized.
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Directions for future research: Explanatory style as positive psychology(
¤@)¡BAttention to outcome measures(
¤G)¡BAttention to mechanisms¡@
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Directions for future research: Explanatory style as positive psychology¼ÖÆ[ªº¬ã¨s¡A·½¦Û©ó
Seligman¡¦s (1990) book learned optimism.¦ý¾Ç³N¤W
Optimism ªº©w¸q¬°¦ó©O¡H¼ÖÆ[»P´Á±æ¤§¶¡ªºÃöÁp¬°¦ó©O¡H
These expectations are not about the future likelihood of good events but rather about the future contingency between events good or bad responses.
¥¿¦V¤ß²z¾Ç»P¤H¥»¾Ç¬£ªº¥D±i¡A¤S¦³¦ó®t²§©O¡H
What presumably distinguishes positive psychology from the humanistic psychology of the 1960s and 1970s and from the positive thinking movement is its reliance on empirical research to understand the human condition (Peterson & Seligman, 1999).
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Directions for future research: Explanatory style as positive psychologyMore needs to be done
In most explanatory style research, the focus has remained on outcomes of interest to the helplessness modal: depression, illness, and failure.
It is not enough to study positive predictors like optimism or generativity; one must also study positive outcomes or, even better, outcomes that range from negative to positive.
Here the expected positive correlation between optimistic explanatory style and good performance is found.
In the entire sample, we found the expected positive correlation between optimistic explanatory style and good mood.
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Directions for future research: Explanatory style as positive psychologynÁA¸Ñ¼ÖÆ[¸ÑÄÀ·®æªº¥Dn¾÷¨î
It is important to take an closer look at the psychological and biological mechanisms that produce the helplessness phenomenon (Peterson et al.. 1993).
When researchers start to show that an optimistic explanatory style is linked to positive outcomes, more of an explanation in terms of mechanisms is demanded.
Emotional mechanisms also deserve attention, given the extensive research literature showing an optimistic explanatory style to be incompatible with depression (Sweeney, Anderson, & Bailey, 1986).
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Directions for future research: Explanatory style as positive psychology¼ÖÆ[»P´dÆ[¸ÑÄÀ·®æ¤À§O¹w´ú¤£¦P¤§µ²ªG¡H
Although we expected that death by cancer and cardiovascular disease would be especially linked to pessimistic thinking, we found that pessimistic individuals were most likely to die accidental deaths.
Accidental deaths are not random. ¡§Being in the wrong place at the wrong time¡¨
May be the result of an incautious and fatalistic lifestyle entwined not only with pessimism but also with the male gender role.