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¥DŪ¤H¡G°ê¥ßªFµØ¤j¾ÇÁ{§É»P¿Ô°Ó¾Ç¨t°Æ±Ð±Â  ªL¯M·Ô

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¡mHandbook of Positive Psychology¡n

Optimistic Explanatory Style (HP.18)

¡mPositive Psychological Assessment¡n

Learned Optimism: The Measurement of Explanatory Style (PPA.4)

¤é´Á¡G2005.11.09

  

(§ë¼v¤ù¤jºõ)

Learned Optimism:
The Measurement of Explanatory Style
by Karen Reivich & Jane Gillham

In positive psychological assessment: a handbook of models and measures.
(Eds.). Shane J. Lopez. & C.R. Snyder
APA. Washington, D. C. (2003),Ch4, p.57-74.

ªL¯M·Ô ³ø§i

³ø§i¤jºõ¡G

¥»½g¥D¦®

¸ÑÄÀ­·®æªº²z½×

RLHT »P HT

¸ÑÄÀ­·®æªº´ú¶q

1. ASQ

2. CAVE

3. CASQ

¸ÑÄÀ­·®æªº´ú¶qªº¥¼¨Óµo®i

«e ¨¥

¼ÖÆ[¡]¥D¸q¡^ªÌ (optimism) ªº©w¸q¡G

¦r¨å¤¤ªº©w¸q¡G

1. ¥Rº¡§Æ±æªº©Ê®æ¡A©Î¬O°í«H¡ugood¡v·|±o¨ì³Ì«áªº³Ó§Q

A hopeful disposition or a conviction that

¡¥good¡¨ will ultimately prevail.

2. ¬Û«H§Ú­Ì©Ò³BªºÀô¹Ò¡A¬O¦t©z¤¤³Ì¦nªº¥@¬É

Refers to the belief, or the inclination to believe,

that the world is the best of all possible worlds.

¤ß²z¾Çªº©w¸q¡G

1. ¦b¬J©wªº±¡¹Ò¸Ì¡A¥Rº¡¤F§Æ±æ

Hopeful expectations in a given situation

(Scheier & Carver, 1988)

2. ´¶¹Mªº¥¿¦V´Á«Ý

General expectancies that are positive

(Scheier & Carver, 1993).

«e ¨¥

¼ÖÆ[¥D¸q(optimism) vs. ´dÆ[¥D¸q(pessimism)ªº¥D­n®t²§¡G

¨­¤ß°·±d·|¦³©Ò¤£¦P¡G

¦b¼ÖÆ[©Ê®æ´úÅ禳°ª¤Àªº¤H¤ñ´dÆ[½×ªÌ¡A¦³¸û¤Öªº¼~Æ{¯g¯gª¬©M¾Õªø¨Ï¥Î¦³®Äªº¦]À³µ¦²¤©M¸û¤Ö¥Í²z¯gª¬¡C

Individuals who score high on measures of dispositional optimism report¡G

1. fewer depressive symptoms,

2. greater use of effective coping strategies,

3. fewer physical symptoms.

(for reviews see Scheier & Carver, 1992, 1993).

¦Ó¤£¦PªºÂk¦]­·®æ¤]¦³¬Û¦Pªºµ²ªG(outcomes)¡G

Optimistic explanatory style »P­Ó¤Hªº motivation, achievement, physical-well-being ¤Î low level of depressive symptoms ¦³ÃöÁp¡C

«e ¨¥

¤£¦P¸ÑÄÀ­·®æªº¤H¡A¨äÂk¦]¤è¦¡·|¦³©Ò¤£¦P¡G

«e ¨¥

Dispositional optimism »P Explanatory style

¬Û³q¶Ü¡H

Carver and Scheier¡]2002¡^»{¬°¡G

¼ÖÆ[©Ê®æ¡qdispositional optimism¡r©M¸ÑÄÀ­·®æ¡qexplanatory style¡r¬O·§©À¬Û³qªº(·§©À©Êªº³sµ²)

¦ý¬OAbramson et al., (1989)«h»{¬°¡G

Âk¦]¡]¸ÑÄÀ­·®æ¡^©M¹w´Á¡]¼ÖÆ[¡^¬OµLÃöªº

Q¡GExplanation »P Expectation ¤§¶¡ªºÃöÁp¡A

¨s³º¬°¦ó©O¡H

Q¡G¼ÖÆ[¨s³º¬O¤@ºØ¤Ñ¥Íªº©Ê±¡(dispositional optimism)¡A

©Î¬O¾Ç¨Óªº¡H

(Learned helplessness ó Learned optimism)

¡m¾Ç²ß¼ÖÆ[¡B¼ÖÆ[¾Ç²ß¡n¡]Learned Optimism¡^¡AMartin E. P. SeligmanµÛ¡A¬xÄõĶ¡A»·¬y¥Xª©¤½¥q¥Xª©¡C

¤@¡B¸ÑÄÀ­·®æ²z½×(Explanatory Style Theories)
(¤@)¡B­««Øªº²ß±oµL§U²z½×
The reformulated learned helplessness theory

­««Øªº²ß±oµL§U²z½×

The reformulated learned helplessness theory (RLHT)

²z½×¥D¦®¡]Abramson, Seligman, & Teaslade, 1978) ¡G

ºD©Ê¦a¸ÑÄÀ¨Æ¥óªº¤è¦¡¡A·|¼vÅT­Ó¤H¥¼¨Ó³B²z¨Æ±¡ªº°Ê¾÷¡B«ùÄò¤O¡B¤Î­Ó¤H¨­¤ßª¬ºA¡C

¸ÑÄÀ­·®æªº­«­n¤ÀªR¦V«×¡G

1. ¤º¦b vs. ¥~¦b

2. í©w vs. ¤£Ã­©w

3. ¥þ­±ªº vs. ¯S®íªº

¹ï©ó­t¦V¨Æ¥óªº¶É¦V©T©w§Î¦¡ªº¸ÑÄÀ¡G

¨Ò¦p¡G¸ÑÄÀ©M¦P¨Æªº½Ä¬ð¡A

¼ÖÆ[¥D¸qªº¤H·|§i¶D¦Û¤v¡G¡u¥L¥i¯à­è­è¹J¨ì¤£¶¶¹Eªº¨Æ¡v

¡]³o¬O¤@ºØ¥~¦bªº¡B¤£Ã­©wªº¡B¯S®íªºÂk¦]¡^

´dÆ[ªº¤H·|»{¬°¬O¡G¡u§Ú¤£¾Õªø¤H»ÚÃö«Y¡v

¡]³o¬O¤@ºØ¤º¦bªº¡Bí©wªº¡B¥þ­±ªºªºÂk¦]¡^

¤@¡B¸ÑÄÀ­·®æ²z½×(Explanatory Style Theories)
(¤@)¡B­««Øªº²ß±oµL§U²z½×
The reformulated learned helplessness theory

¤@¡B¸ÑÄÀ­·®æ²z½×(Explanatory Style Theories)
(¤@)¡B­««Øªº²ß±oµL§U²z½×
The reformulated learned helplessness theory

¤£¦P¸ÑÄÀ­·®æªº¤H¡A¹ï¥¿¦V¨Æ¥óªº¸ÑÄÀ¡G

¤@¡B¸ÑÄÀ­·®æ²z½×(Explanatory Style Theories)
(¤@)¡B­««Øªº²ß±oµL§U²z½×
The reformulated learned helplessness theory

¹ï¥¼¨Óªº¹w´Á (³q±`­t¦V¨Æ¥óªºÂk¦]¼vÅT¸û¤j)

RLHT ªº¥D±i¡G

¹ï­t¦V¨Æ¥óí©w¤Î¥þ­±ªºÂk¦]¡A·|³y¦¨¹ï¥¼¨Ó¨Æ¥óªº¤£¥i±±¨î¹w´Á¡A¦Ó¥¼¨Ó¦b­±¹ï°ÝÃD®É¡A·|·P¨ìµL§U¡C¡]Âk¦]©ó¤£Ã­©w¤Î¯S©wªÌ¡A«h¬Û¤Ï¡C

¡@

¡@

¡@

¡@

í©wªºÂk¦]©MµL§U¯gª¬ªº«ùÄò®É¶¡¬O¬ÛÃöªº¡C

¥þ­±©ÊªºÂk¦]»PµL§Uªº±¡¹ÒÃþ¤Æ¬O¬ÛÃöªº¡C

¤º¦bªºÂk¦]©M¦b¼~Æ{®Éªº§C¦Û´L¬O¦³¬ÛÃöªº¡C

¤@¡BExplanatory Style Theories
(¤G)¼~Æ{ªºµ´±æ²z½×
The Hopelessness Theory of Depression

¼~Æ{ªºµ´±æ²z½×

(The Hopelessness Theory of Depression) (HT)

Abramson et al.,¡]1989¡^¥D±i¸ÑÄÀ­·®æªºÃ­©w©Ê©M¥þ­±©Ê¤ñ¤º¦b©Ê¡A¹ï°Ê¾÷©M¼~Æ{¦³§ó±j¯Pªº¼vÅT ¡C

HT ¬OAbramsonµ¥¤H¹ïRLHT ªº­×¥¿¡C

¨Ò¦p¡G¦b¡u·R¤£«ù¤[¡vªº³o­Ó«H©À¡]¥~¦b¡Bí©w¡B¥þ­±©ÊªºÂk¦]¡^¤U¡A³d³Æ»P¦ñ«Qªº¤À¤â¤]±N¾É­Pµ´±æ¡A§Y¨Ï³o­ÓÂk¦]¤£¬O¤º¦bªº¡C

¦]¦¹¤º¦b©ÊªºÂk¦]¡A¨Ã«D¬OÃöÁ䪺¦]¯À¡C

¤@¡BExplanatory Style Theories
(¤G)¼~Æ{ªºµ´±æ²z½×
The Hopelessness Theory of Depression

¤TºØÃþ«¬ªºÂk¦]¤è¦¡Åý¤H¦b¨Æ¥ó¤¤³´¤J¼~Æ{¡G

¨Æ¥ó³QÂk¦]¬Oí©wªº©M¥þ­±©Êªº¡C

±À½×¨Æ¥ó·|¬O­t¦V©Î¨aÃøªºµ²ªG¡C

±À½×¨Æ¥ó¬O¦Û¤vªº¯S½è³y¦¨ªº¡C

·í³o¨Ç¸ÑÄÀ®É±`¥X²{®É¡A·|¾É­P¡G

°ª¦ô¨Æ¥óµ²ªGªº­t¦V¹w´Á¡]­t¦Vµ²ªGªº¹w´Á¡^

§ïÅܵ²ªG¥i¯à©Êªº¯à¤O­°§C¡]µL§Uªº¹w´Á¡^

®Ú¾ÚHT¡A­t¦V¹w´Áªº¯S¼x¬°¼~Æ{ªº³Ì¥i¯à­ì¦]¡C

­t¦V¹w´Áªº¯S¼x¡G

©µ¿ð¦Ûµo©Êªº¤ÏÀ³¡B´d¶Ë±¡·P¡B¯Ê¥F¬¡¤O¡B§N­¯

¤G¡BThe Measurement of Explanatory Style
¸ÑÄÀ­·®æªº´ú¶q

¤TºØ´ú¶q¤èªk

¤@¡BÂk¦]­·®æ°Ý¨÷ ¡]ASQ¡^

Attributional Style Questionnaire,

Seligman (1979); Peterson et al., (1982)

¤G¡B³v¦r¸ÑÄÀªº¤º®e¤ÀªR§Þ³N¡]CAVE¡^

Content Analysis of Verbatim Explanations

Peterson et al., (1985)

¤T¡B¨àµ£Âk¦]­·®æ°Ý¨÷¡]CASQ¡^

Children¡¦s Attributional Style Questionnaire

kawlow, et al., (1978)

¤G¡B¸ÑÄÀ­·®æªº´ú¶q
¤TºØ´ú¶q¤èªk

Âk¦]­·®æ°Ý¨÷ ¡]ASQ¡^

¦h¼Æ¬ã¨sªÌ¨Ï¥Î¦¹°Ý¨÷¨Ó¬ã¨s¦¨¤H¡A¹L¥h¤Q¦~¤¤¡A¸ÑÄÀ­·®æªº¬ã¨sªÌ¶}©l¨Ï¥Î2ºØ©µ¦ùªºASQ(E-ASQ)¡C

E-ASQ ±`¥Î¨Ó´ú¶qHTªº¬ã¨s¡C

E-ASQ ¥]§t§ó¦hªº­t¦V¨Æ¥ó¡A¦Ó¥B¤ñ­ì¥»ªºASQ¦³§ó°ªªº«H«×¡C

¦]¬°E-ASQ¨S¦³¥¿¦V¨Æ¥ó¡A©Ò¥H¥u¥Î¨Ó´ú¶q­t¦V¨Æ¥óªº¸ÑÄÀ­·®æ¡C

Cognitive Style Questionnaire (¥ÑAbramson, 1998, ©Òµo®i¡A¥Î¥H´ú¶q¡G

HT ªº²z½× ¡]­Ó¤H¬O§_·|¦³stable & global,

negative consequence, ¤Î negative characteristic about self ªºÂk¦]¤è¦¡¡^

¤G¡B¸ÑÄÀ­·®æªº´ú¶q
¤TºØ´ú¶q¤èªk

³v¦r¸ÑÄÀªº¤º®e¤ÀªR§Þ³N¡]CAVE¡^

¦¹§Þ³N¡]CAVE¡^ÂǥѤÀªR³¯­z¥y¡B¤é»x©M¤@¨Ç¤å¦r§÷®Æ¨Óµû¶q¸ÑÄÀ­·®æ¡C

CAVE©â¨ú¥X¥¿¦V©M­t¦V¨Æ¥óªº¸ÑÄÀ­·®æ¡A¨Ã¥B±N¥Lªº¤º¦b©Ê¡Bí©w©Ê¡B¥þ­±©Ê¥[¥H½s½X¡C

¨àµ£Âk¦]­·®æ°Ý¨÷¡]CASQ¡^

¦¹°Ý¨÷¡]CASQ¡^¼sªx¥Î©ó´ú¶q¨àµ£ªº¸ÑÄÀ­·®æ¡ACASQ¥]§t¤F±j­¢¿ï¾Üªº48­Ó°²³]©Ê¨Æ¥ó¡]24­Ó¥¿¦V©M24­Ó­t¦V¨Æ¥ó¡^¡C

³Ìªñ¡AThompsonµ¥¤H(1998)µo®i¥XCASQªº­×­qª©¥»¡]CASQ-R¡^¡CCASQ-R¥u¦³24ÃD¡A«H«×¤ñ­ì¨Óª©¥»§C¤@¨Ç¡A¦ý¬O§ó¾A¥Î©ó´ú¶q¸û¤p¨àµ£ªº¸ÑÄÀ­·®æ¡A¤]¾A¥Î©ó®É¶¡ºò­¢ªºª¬ªp¡C

(¤@) The attribution style questionnaire -(ASQ)
¡iÂk¦]­·®æ°Ý¨÷¡j

¥ÑSeligman µ¥¤H ¦b1979¦~©Òµo®i¡G

¥Î¥H¬ã¨s RLHT ªº¹w´ú¯à¤O¡G

¶É¦V±N¤£¦nªº¨Æ¥ó§@¤º¦bªº¡Bí©wªº¡B¥þ­±ªº ¸ÑÄÀªº¤H¡A·|¤ñ¥Î¥~¦bªº¡B¤£Ã­©wªº¡B¯S®íªº ¸ÑÄÀªº¤H¡A®e©ö¦³¼~Æ{¯gªº¶É¦V ¡C

ASQ¬O¤@ºØ¦Û³¯¦¡¶qªí

¥]§t¦³12ºØ°²³]±¡¹Ò¡G

¤»ºØ¬O­t¦V¨Æ¥ó¡B¤»ºØ¬O¥¿¦V¨Æ¥ó

¤»­Ó±¡¹Ò¬OÃö«Y¨ú¦V¡B¤»­Ó±¡¹Ò¬O¦¨´N¨ú¦V

Ãö«Yªº¶µ¥Ø¡G»P¤H»ÚÃö«Y¦³Ãöªº°ÝÃD

¦¨´Nªº¶µ¥Ø¡G©M¤u§@¡B¾Ç·~¦¨ÁZ¡B¹B°Ê¦³Ãöªº°ÝÃD

(¤@) The attribution style questionnaire -(ASQ)
¡iÂk¦]­·®æ°Ý¨÷¡j

(¤@) The attribution style questionnaire -(ASQ)
¡iÂk¦]­·®æ°Ý¨÷¡j

¬°¤°»ò­n¦P®É¨Ï¥ÎÃö«Y»P¦¨´N¨âºØ¶µ¥Ø¡G

²Ä¤@¡B¥i¥H´ú¶q¥X¸ó±¡¹Òªº¡y­·®æ¡z¡C

²Ä¤G¡B¥i¥H¤¹³\­Ó¤HªºÂk¦]­·®æ¡A¦b¤£¦Pªº±¡¹Ò

¦³©Ò¤£¦P¡C

©Ò¦³±¡¹Ò¬O°²³]ªº¨Æ¥ó¡A¦Ó«D¯u¹ê¨Æ¥ó

¦^µª«e·|­n¨D¨ü¸ÕªÌ·Q¹³¨Æ¥ó¬O¯uªº¦³µo¥Í¡AµM«á½Ð¥L»¡¥X¥L»{¬°¨Æ¥óµo¥Íªº¥D­n¥i¯à­ì¦](one major cause)¡C

¨Ï¥Î7ÂI¶qªíµû¶q­ì¦]ªºÂk¦]¦V«×¡G

¥~¦bªº¡B¤£Ã­©wªº¡B¯S®íªº => ­p¤À1¤À¡G

¤º¦bªº¡Bí©wªº¡B¥þ­±ªº => ­p¤À7¤À¡G

(¤@) The attribution style questionnaire -(ASQ)
¡iÂk¦]­·®æ°Ý¨÷¡j ASQ-°O¤À-1

°O¤ÀScoring

¤»ªº¿W¥ßªº¤À¼Æ¡qindividual dimension scores¡r

¤T­Óºî¦Xªº¤À¼Æ¡qcomposite scores ¡r

¿W¥ßªº¤À¼Æ¤À§O¬O¡G

­Ó¤H¹ï¤»­Ó­t¦V¨Æ¥óµû»ùªº

¡i¤º¦bµ{«×ªº¥­§¡(IN)¡j internal negative

¡ií©wµ{«×ªº¥­§¡(SN)¡j stable negative

¡i¥þ­±µ{«×ªº¥­§¡(GN)¡j global negative

­Ó¤H¹ï¤»­Ó¥¿¦V¨Æ¥óµû»ùªº

¡i¤º¦bµ{«×ªº¥­§¡(IP)¡j internal positive

¡ií©wµ{«×ªº¥­§¡(SP)¡j stable positive

¡i¥þ­±µ{«×ªº¥­§¡(GP)¡j global positive

(¤@) The attribution style questionnaire -(ASQ)
¡iÂk¦]­·®æ°Ý¨÷¡j ASQ-°O¤À-2

ºî¦Xªº¤À¼Æ¬O CN¡A CP¡A¤Î CPCN¡G

ºî¦Xªº­t¦V¸ÑÄÀ­·®æ(CN)¡A²V¦X¤F¤»­Ó­t¦V¨Æ¥ó¡AÁ`¦X¤F¤º¦bªº¡Bí©wªº¡B¥þ­±©Ê¡C

CN ¡× ¡]IN ¡Ï SN ¡Ï GN¡^/ 6

ºî¦Xªº¥¿¦V¸ÑÄÀ­·®æ(CP)¡A²V¦X¤F¤»­Ó¥¿¦V¨Æ¥ó¡C

CP ¡× ¡]IP ¡Ï SP ¡Ï GP¡^/ 6

CPCN ¡× (CP - CN) ¬O¤@­Ó¥þ³¡ªººî¦X¤À¼Æ¡C

¥t¥~¡A¦³¤T­Ó¤À¼Æ¬O¥Î¨Ó±À½×HT ²z½×¡G

1. µ´±æ(HN) Hopelessness = (SN + GN)

µ´±æHN¬O¹ï­t¦V¨Æ¥óªº í©w©Ê»P¥þ­±©Ê

¨â¦V«×¤§¥­§¡­È¡C

2. §Æ±æ(HP) Hopefulness = (SP + GP)

§Æ±æHP«h¬O¹ï¥¿¦V¨Æ±¡ªºÃ­©w©Ê»P¥þ­±©Ê

¨â¦V«×¤§¥­§¡­È¡C

3. HPHN ¡× HP - HN

(¤@) The attribution style questionnaire -(ASQ)
¡iÂk¦]­·®æ°Ý¨÷¡j ASQ-«H«×ÀËÅç

ASQ ªº¤º³¡¤@­P©Ê (Internal Consistency)¡G

¨Ï¥Î¶µ¥Ø¦P½è©Êªº¤ÀªR¡A¤w¦³³\¦hªº¬ã¨sÅã²{¤º³¡¤@­P©Ê°ª¡A©Ò¥HASQªº¶qªí¦³¾A·íªº«H«×¡C

¥¿­t¨Æ¥óªºÂk¦]¤è¦¡¬O§_¦³¤@­P©Ê¡H(consistency across valence)

1. Peterson(1982) µo²{¹ï¥¿¡B­t¦V¨Æ¥óªºÂk¦]¤è¦¡¡A

¨âªÌ¤§¶¡¬O¨S¦³¬ÛÃöªº¡C

2. ¦ý¬OSchulman, Castellon, and Seligman(1989) µo²{

CN»PCP¤§¶¡¡A¦³ÅãµÛªº¬ÛÃö¡G

r = -.24 (P < .002, n =160)

3. ©Î³\¦b¥¿¡B­t¦VªºÂk¦]¤è¦¡¬ã¨s¤W¡A­n¤À¶}³B²z¡C

(¤@) The attribution style questionnaire -(ASQ)
¡iÂk¦]­·®æ°Ý¨÷¡j ASQ-¦A´ú«H«×

ASQ ªº¦A´ú«H«× (Test-Retest Reliability)

Golin, Sweeney, and Schaeffer(1981)¥H206¦ì¤j¾Ç¥Í¬°¬ã¨s¡A±o¨ìASQªº¦A´ú«H«×¡G

(¤@) The attribution style questionnaire -(ASQ)
¡iÂk¦]­·®æ°Ý¨÷¡j ASQ-«Øºc®Ä«×

ASQ ªº«Øºc®Ä«× (Construct Validity)

1. ¬°¤F½T©w·§©À©M´ú¶q¤§¶¡¬O¤£¬O«´¦X¡A¦]¦¹¥Î¥»´úÅç

©M¨ä¥L´ú¶q¤è¦¡¨D¬ÛÃö¡C

2. Schulman µ¥¤H (1989)¹ï169¦ì¤j¾Ç¥Í¬I´úASQ¡A¨Ã­n¨D

¨C¤@¦ì°Ñ»PªÌ±NASQ¤¤°²³]ªº¨Æ¥ó»P­ì¦]¼g¤U¨Ó¡A

µM«á½Ð¤T¦ìµû¤ÀªÌ¥ÎCAVEªºµû¶q§Þ³N¡A¨Ó¨D¥XÃþ¦P

ASQªº¦U­Ó¤l¤À¼Æ¡C

3. µû¤ÀªÌ¨Ã¤£ª¾¹D¦^µªªÌ¬O½Ö¡C

4. ³Ì«á­pºâ°Ñ»PªÌ¦Û¤vµû¶qªº¤À¼Æ»Pµû¤ÀªÌ©Òµ¹ªº¤À¼Æ¡A

¨âºØµû¶qªº¬ÛÃö¡G

CPCN ±o .71¡B

CN ±o .48¡B

CP ±o .52

(¤@) The attribution style questionnaire -(ASQ)
¡iÂk¦]­·®æ°Ý¨÷¡j ASQ-®Ä¼Ð®Ä«×

ASQ ªº®Ä¼ÐÃöÁp®Ä«×(Criterion-related validity)

ASQªº¹w´ú®Ä«×»P¦P®É®Ä«×¤w³Q¦h­Ó¬ã¨s¤§¦UºØ¦V«×

©Ò¤ä«ù¤F¡C

¨Ò¦p¡G¼ÖÆ[ªº¸ÑÄÀ­·®æ·|¦³¡G

§C¼~Æ{¡B

¦³°ª¦¨´N¡B

¨­Åé¸û¬°°·±d ªº¶É¦V¡C

(e.g., Peterson & Seligman, 1984;

Schulman, Keith, & Seligman, 1991)

(¤G)¡BContent Analysis of Verbatim Explanation (CAVE) ¡i­ìµü¸ÑÄÀªº¤º®e¤ÀªR§Þ³N¡j

Peterson, Luborsky, and Seligman (1983) ©Òµo®i

¥Î¥H¤ÀªR¤å¦r½Z¡A¹³¬O±à½Í¡B¤é°O¡B¤å³¹¡Bµu¤å¡B·s»D³ø¾É¡B¯f¨Òµ¥¦UºØ¸ê®Æ¡C

by analyzing documents such as interviews, diaries, letters, essays, newspaper, articles, therapy transcripts, speech, and so forth.

CAVE·|²£¥Í¥X©MASQÃþ¦üªº¦U¶µ¤l¤À¼Æ¡C

(¤G)¡BContent Analysis of Verbatim Explanation (CAVE) ¡i­ìµü¸ÑÄÀªº¤º®e¤ÀªR§Þ³N¡j

CAVEªº¥|­Ó¥D­n¨BÆJ¡G

1. ¿ï¨ú¨Æ¥ó

¡]¥²¶·¬O¯u¹ê¡B¦³·N¸q¡A¦Ó¥B¥¿©Î­t¦Vªº¡^

2. ¦³¦]ªG¦¨¤Àªº¸ÑÄÀ¡]event-causal explanatory)

(¥²¶·¬O¦Û¤vµ¹ªº¦]ªGÃö«Y¸ÑÄÀ¡^¡C

3. µû¤ÀªÌ¹ï¨Æ¥óªº»{©w¡]¥¿­t©Ê »P ¦]ªG©Ê¡^

4. µû¤ÀªÌ¹ï¸ÑÄÀªºÂk¦]¦V«×µû¤À

¡]¹ï©ó¦]ªG³¯­z¥y¥H¤º¦bªº¡Bí©wªº¡B

¥þ­±©Êªº¤è¦¡¨Óµ¹¤À¡^¡C

=> ¦]¬°¼Ð·Ç¤Æªº¨BÆJ¡A©Ò¥H¨ã¦³¬Û·í°ªªº«H«×¡C

(¤G)¡BContent Analysis of Verbatim Explanation (CAVE) ¡i­ìµü¸ÑÄÀªº¤º®e¤ÀªR§Þ³N¡j

CAVE¤ñ¦Û³¯¦¡°Ý¨÷¦³¸û°ªªº¥ÍºA®Ä«×(ecologically valid)¡G

¦]¬°¨Æ¥óªº´y­z¤ñASQ¤¤¥X²{ªº¨Æ¥ó¡A»P¨ü³XªÌ§ó¦³Ãö³s©Ê¡B§ó¦³·N¸q©Ê¡C

µM¦Ó¡A³o¤]»Ý­n¨ü³XªÌ¸Û¹êªº¦^µª¡C

¯u¹ê©Ê¬OCAVEªº¥D­n¨M©w¦]¤l¡G°²¦p©Ò©â¨úªº§÷®Æ¬O¦³¯u¹ê©Êªº¡A«h­ÓÅ饲©w·|Åã²{¥X¯S©wªº¸ÑÄÀ­·®æ¡C

(¤G)¡BCAVE
Reality VS. Style

¤@¥ó¨Æ¥óµo¥Íªº­ì¦]¡A¤j¦hÀ³¬O½ÆÂø¦Ó¥B¦h¦V«×ªº¡C

¦ý¬O¦pªG¤@­Ó¤H¦b³\¦hªº¨Æ¥óÂk¦]¤W¡A¦h¨ã¦³¤@­P©Ê¸ÑÄÀ¦V«×¡A«h³oÀ³¸Ó´N¬O³o­Ó¤Hªº¸ÑÄÀ­·®æ¡G

¨Ò¦p¡G¤@¦ì­û¤uªº¦ÑÁó¹ï¥Lªº¤u§@¦³·N¨£¡A©ó¬O¥L»P¦ÑÁ󪧧n¡C¦ý¬O¬°¤°»ò¥L­n»P¦ÑÁ󪧧n©O¡H

¥i¯à¦³³\¦h­ì¦]«P¦¨¤F³o¦¸ªºª§§n¡C­Ó¤H¦b°µ¸ÑÄÀªº´ú¶q®É¡A¥i¯àµLªk¦Ò¼{¥þ³¡ªº¦]¯À¡C

¤j³¡¤Àªº¤H¥i¯à¥u´£¨ì¤@­Ó©Î¨â­Ó¯S§O¯d·NÃö¤ßªº²z¥Ñ¡A¦Ó³o­Ó²z¥Ñ¡A´N¥i¯àºc¦¨¤F¥Lªº¸ÑÄÀ­·®æ¡C

Peterson and Seligman¥D±istyle¡]­·®æ¡^¥²©w«O¯d©ó­ÓÅéí©wªº¸ÑÄÀ­ì¦]¤¤¡C

(¤G)¡BCAVE-
¸ÑÄÀªº¤@­P©Ê

¸ÑÄÀªº¤@­P©Ê(consistency in explanation)

¸ÑÄÀ­·®æ¬O¤@ºØ»{ª¾¯S½è(cognitive trait)¡A¦ý§Ú­ÌµLªk¹w´Á¨C­Ó¤H·|µL®ÉµL¨è³£¯à«O«ù¤@­P©Ê¡C

ÅÜ°Ê·|ÀH®É¶¡¥H¤Î±¡¹Ò¦Óµo¥Í¡C

¦Ó¨Ï¥ÎCAVE®É¡A¥²¶·¿ï¾Ü¤@¨Ç¨Æ¥ó¡A¬O¦P®É¥]§t¦¨´N¨ú¦V»PÃö«Y¨ú¦Vªº¤£¦P¨Æ¥ó¡C

(¤G)¡BCAVE-
¿ï¨ú¸ÑÄÀ¨Æ¥óªº³æ¦ì
-1

¿ï¨ú¸ÑÄÀ¨Æ¥óªº³æ¦ì(Extracting Event-Explanation Unit)

¨Æ¥óªº©w¸q¬O­ÓÅé©P³òÀô¹Ò¤¤µo¥Íªº¨ë¿E¡A¦Ó¥B¹ï©ó­ÓÅé¦Ó¨¥¬O¥¿¦V©Î­t¦Vªº¨Æ±¡¡G

¨Æ¥ó¥i¯à¬O¤ß²zªº(mental)¡BªÀ·|ªº(social)©Îª«²zªº(physical)¡C¨Æ¥óªºµo¥Í¥i¯à¬O¹L¥h¡B²{¦b©Î¥¼¨Óªº¡C

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¨Ò¦p§Ú©M§Ú¦Ñ±C¥h¨£¤@¦ìÁ{§ÉÂå®v¡A¬O¥ó­t¦V¨Æ¥ó¤]¥i¯à¬O¥¿¦V¨Æ¥ó¡A³o¬O¨ú¨M©ó­Ó¤Hªº¸ÑÄÀ¡C

·í¦^µªªÌ¦³¤@­Ó½T©wªºÆ[ÂI®É¡A´N¥i¥H±N¥¦¿ï¨ú¥X¨Ó¡C

¨Æ¥ó¦P®É¦³¥¿¦V©Î­t¦Vªº¤¸¯À¡A©Î¬O¤¤¥ßªº¸ÑÄÀ¡A´N¤£·|³Q¿ï¨ú¡C

(¤G)¡BCAVE-
¿ï¨ú¸ÑÄÀ¨Æ¥óªº³æ¦ì-2

¤§«á¡A¦^µªªº¤H¥²¶·ªí©ú¦Û¤v¹ï¨Æ¥óªº¸ÑÄÀ¡C

¸ÑÄÀ¥²¶·¬O¦^µªªÌ¥»¨­ªº¸Ü»y¡A¤£¯à¬O§O¤Hªº¸ÑÄÀ¡A©Î¬O¤Þ¥Î§O¤Hªº¸Ü»y

¨Ò¦p¡A§Ú¦ÑÁó±N§Ú¦w¸m©ó¤@­Ó­«­nªºÂ¾¯Ê¡A¦o»¡¦]¬°§Ú¦³³Ì¦nªº¼g§@§Þ¥©¡A©Ò¥H§Æ±æ§Ú°µ¨º­Ó¾¯Ê¡C

¡×> ³o´N¤£¬O¥O¤Hº¡·Nªºµª®×¡A¦]¬°¹ï­ì¦]ªº¸ÑÄÀ¬O¨Ó¦Û©ó¶±¥D¦Ó«D¦^µªªÌ¡C

¸ÑÄÀ¥²¶·¬O¦]ªGªº´y­z¡A¦Ó«D­ì¦]ªº©µ¦ù¡C

¥²¶·¦b¸ÑÄÀ»P­ì¦]¤§¶¡¦³²M·¡ªºÃö«Y¡C¦Ó¥B¸ÑÄÀ¥²¶·¬O¦^µªªÌ©Ò¯à²z¸Ñªº¤å¦r¡C³o­Ó­ì¦]¥i¥H¥]¬A¨ä¥L¨Æ¥ó¡B¦æ¬°¡B¯S½èµ¥µ¥¡C

(¤G)¡BCAVE-
¿ï¨ú¸ÑÄÀ¨Æ¥óªº³æ¦ì-3

1. ¨Ï¥Îªº§÷®Æ¬O¥ô¦ó©M¤å¦r¦³ÃöªºªF¦è¡G¦p¿ý­µ±a¡B¿ý¼v±a¡Bµ§­pµ¥µ¥¡C

2. ¨Æ¥ó¤¤ªºbecause©Î¬O¥¦ªº¦P¸q¦r¬O¸ÑÄÀªº­«ÂI¡C

3. ¨Æ¥ó¸ÑÄÀ³æ¦ì¬O¨Ó¦Û¡G¦³·N¸qªº¦]ªGÃö«Y¤¤©â¨ú¥X¨Óªº¡C

4. µû¤ÀªÌ¦bµû¶q³Q©â¨úªº¨Æ¥ó¸ÑÄÀ³æ¦ì¤§«e¡A¥²¶·¥ý½T©w¦U­Ó(E-A)¬OÀH¾÷ªº§e²{¡G

ÀH¾÷ªº¨BÆJ¬O­«­nªº¡A¦]¬°¥i¥HÁקKµû¤À¤§°¾»~¡C

5. µû¤ÀªÌªº¤@­P©Ê¡GPeterson et al., µo²{¤j©ó90%¡C

³o­Ó¤@­Pªº¼Ð·Ç¡A¥X²{¦b¨Ï¥ÎÄY®æªº¼Ð·Ç¥h°µ¦]ªGªº½T»{®É¤~¯àÅã²{¡C

(¤G)¡BCAVE-
¿ï¨ú¸ÑÄÀ¨Æ¥óªº³æ¦ì-4

Examples of acceptable event-explanation units

¨Ò¦p(E=Event, A=attribution)

E¡GI lost my temper with my son.

A¡GHe doesn¡¦t listen to a word I say.

E¡GMy sister was rude to me.

A¡Gshe doesn¡¦t care about my feeling at all.

¥H¤U¬OµLªk±µ¨üªº

E¡GI must be getting sick.

A¡Gbecause I feel lethargic and I have a bad cough.

¡§because¡¨¤£¤@©w¬O­ì¦]ªº¸ÑÄÀ¡C

¦b³o­Ó¨Ò¤l¤¤¡A¥L¬O¹ï¥Í¯f¤U©w¸q¦Ó«Dµ¹­ì¦]¡C

(¤G)¡BCAVE-
Rating of Extractions

¹ï¸ÑÄÀªºÂk¦]¦V«×µû¤À¡A¬O¨Ï¥Î7­Óµ¥¯Å¡C

7¤Àªí¥Ü³Ì¤º¦bªº¡Bí©wªº¡B¥þ­±©Êªº ¸ÑÄÀ

1¤Àªí¥Ü³Ì¥~¦bªº¡B¤£Ã­©wªº¡B¯S®í©Êªº ¸ÑÄÀ

¤TºØÂk¦]¦V«×¡G

1. ¤º¡B¥~¦b ¦V«× The Internal VS. External scale

2. í©w¡B¤£Ã­©w¦V«× The Stable VS. Unstable Scale

3. ¥þ­±©Ê¡B¯S®í©Ê¦V«× The Global VS. Specific Scale

(¤G)¡BCAVE-1 ¤º¥~¦b¶qªí
The Internal VS. External scale

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1¤À ¡G§O¤Hªº¦æ°Ê¡B§@·~ªºÃø«×¡B®É¶¡©ÎÀô¹Ò

µ¥¥~¦b¦]¯À¡C

7¤À ¡G¤H®æ¡B¨­Åé¯S½è¡B¦æ¬°¡B¨M¤ß¡B«H©À¡B

°Ê¾÷¡Bª¾Ãѯà¤O¡B¯e¯f¡B¨ü¶Ë¡B¦~ÄÖ¡B

ªÀ·|©Î¬Fªv¦a¦ì¡C

2¡ã¢µ ªí¥Ü¬O¨âªÌ¤§¶¡¡C

(¤G)¡BCAVE-1 ¤º¡B¥~¦b¶qªíªºµû¤À¨Ò¤l¡G
¡]¥¿¡B­t¦V¨Æ¥óªº¥~¦b©Î¤º¦bÂk¦]µû¤À¡^

(¤G)¡BCAVE-2 í©w»P¤£Ã­©w¶qªí
The Stable VS. Unstable Scale

¡yí©w¡z¡G¦³Ãö©ó«ùÄò©Ê©ÎÃø¥H§ó§ïªº­ì¦]¡C

¡y¤£Ã­©w¡z¡GÁ{®Éªº­ì¦]¡C

¥²¶·°Ï¤À¬Oí©wªº­ì¦]ÁÙ¬Oí©wªº¨Æ¥ó¡C¡]µû¤À®É¡A­«µøªº¬O­ì¦]¡A¦Ó«D¨Æ¥ó¡^

µû©wí©w­ì¦]ªº©T©w¬[ºc¬O¡G

¡u§i¶D§Ú³o­Ó¨Æ¥ó¬O¦h±`¦]¬°³o­Ó­ì¦]¦Óµo¥Í¡v

®Ú¾ÚRLHT¡G¦pªG­ÓÅéÁ`¬O¤@­Pªº´£¨Ñí©wªº­ì¦]¡A«hªí¥Ü³o¬OÃø¥H§ó§ïªº¡C

¬°¤F´ú¸Õ³o­Ó°²³]¡A§Ú­Ì¥²¶·µû¶q­ì¦]ªºÃ­©wµ{«×¡A¦Ó¤£¦b¥G¨Æ¥óªºÃ­©wµ{«×¡C

(¤G)¡BCAVE-2 í©w»P¤£Ã­©w¶qªí
The Stable VS. Unstable Scale

¨ä¤¤¦³¥|ÂI¥i¥HÀ°§U§Ú­Ì§@­ì¦]ªºÃ­©w©Êµû¤À¡G

¸ÑÄÀ­ì¦]ªº®ÉºA¡G°²¦p¨Æ¥óªº­ì¦]¬O¥H¹L¥h®ÉºA´y­z¡A«h¤ñ¥Î²{¦b¦¡©Î¶i¦æ¦¡¨Ó´y­z¡Aí©w©Ê¨Ó±o§C¡C

¥¼¨Ó¦Aµo¥Íªº¥i¯à©Ê¡G¥¼¨Ó¥i¯àµo¥Íªº­ì¦]¡A¤ñ¤@­ÓÃø¥H¦Aµo¥Íªº­ì¦]¡A¨äí©w©Ê°ª¡C

¶¡Â_©Ê©Î«ùÄò©Ê¡G¶¡Â_©Êªº­ì¦]¤ñ³sÄò©Êªº­ì¦]¡A¨äí©w©Ê§C¡C¨Ò¦p¡A¤Ñ®ð¡A¤ñ¤@­Óí©wªº­ì¦] (¨Ò¦p¡A¥Í²z¯S½è)¡A¦³¸û§CªºÃ­©w©Ê¡C

¯S½è©Î¦æ¬°ªº­ì¦]¡GÂk¦]©ó¯S½è¬O¤ñÂk¦]©ó¦æ¬°¡A§ó¨ã¦³Ã­©w©Ê¡C

³o­Ó¼Ð·Ç¬O¦bµû¶qªº®É­Ô¨Ï¥Îªº¡A¥¦­Ì¤£¤@©w¾A¥Î©Ò¦³®×¨Ò¡A¤]¤£¤@©w¦³¬Ûµ¥ªº¥[Åv¡C

(¤G)¡B CAVE-2 í©w»P¤£Ã­©wµû¶qªº¨Ò¤l¡G
¡]¥¿¡B­t¦V¨Æ¥óªºÃ­©w©Î ¤£Ã­©wÂk¦]µû¤À¡^

(¤G)¡BCAVE-3 ¥þ­±©Ê»P¯S®í©Ê¶qªí
The Global VS. Specific Scale

¡i¥þ­±©Ê¡j­ì¦]ªº¼vÅT¬O¾ãÅ骺¥Í¬¡¡C

¡i¯S®í©Ê¡j­ì¦]ªº¼vÅT¥u¦³¤@¨Ç½d³ò¡C

¥Ã»·¨S¦³¨¬°÷°T®§·í§@«ü¼Ð¡A¨Ó§PÂ_­ì¦]ªº¥þ­±©Êµ{«×¡A¦]¬°§Ú­Ì¤£ª¾¹D¸Ó­ì¦]¹ï­Ó¤H¦³¦h­«­n¡C

³q±`³o­Óªº§PÂ_¼Ð·Ç³£©M¦¨´N©ÎÃö«Y¯S½è¦³Ãö¡G

¦¨´N¡G¥]§t¤F¾·~»P¾Ç·~ªº¦¨¥\¡Bª¾ÃÑ»P§Þ¥©ªº²Ö¿n¡B­ÓÅ骺·NÃѩοW¥ßªº·NÃÑ (sense of individuality or independence)¡B¥H¤ÎªÀ·|¦a¦ì¡C

Ãö«Y¡G¥]§t¤F¿Ë±Kªº¤H»ÚÃö«Y¡BÂkÄÝ·P¡B¹CÀ¸(ª±¦ñ)¥H¤Î¤Ò©dÃö«Y©Î®a®xªº°·±d¡C

µû¤Àªº¦Ò¶q¦b©ó¨Æ¥óªº«áªG¡A¤À§O³y¦¨¤F¦¨´N»PÃö«Y¡A¦³¦h¤jµ{«×ªº¼vÅT¡C

(¤G)¡BCAVE-3 ¥þ­±©Ê»P¯S®í©Ê¶qªí
The Global VS. Specific Scale

¥þ­±©Êªºµû¶q·|»Pí©w©Êªºµû¶q¨ã¦³°ª«×ªº¬ÛÃö©Ê¡C

¦b§@¥þ­±©Êªºµû¶q®É¡A¥u­nµû¦ô·í®Éªº¼vÅT¡A¦Ó¤£­n±N¸ó®É¶¡ªº¦]¯À¯Ç¶i¨Ó¡A¥ç§Y¬O¹ï¤@­Ó®É¶¡ÂIªºµû¶q¡A¦Ó¤£¬O¹ï¤@¬q®É¶¡ªºµû¶q¡C

¦]¬°Ã­©w©Ê»P¥þ­±©Ê¨ú¦V·|¦³ÅãµÛªºÃöÁp¡A©Ò¥Hµû¤ÀªÌªº¿W¥ßµû¶q¬O«D±`­«­nªº¡C

(¤G)¡BCAVE-3 ¥þ­±©Ê»P¯S®í©Êµû¶qªº¨Ò¤l¡G

(¤G)¡BCAVE
µû¤ÀªÌ«H«× (Interrater Reliability)

Sahulman et al., (1989)

CAVEªº¤º³¡¤@­P©Ê«Y¼Æ¦bCN¤W¦³ .89¡BCP¤W¦³ .80¡C

¦]¬°²V¦Xªº¤À¼Æ¤ñ­Ó§O¨ú¦Vªº¤À¼Æ¦n¡A©Ò¥H¹ªÀy¤§«áªº¬ã¨s±Mª`©ó²V¦X¤À¼Æ¤W¡C

(¤G)¡B CAVE
«Øºc®Ä«×
Construct Validity

Peterson and Seligman (1981)²v¥ý¨Ï¥ÎCAVE¨Ó¬ã¨s¸ÑÄÀ­·®æ»P¼~Æ{¯gªºÃö«Y¡C¥L­Ì¨Ï¥Î¯f¾ú¬ö¿ý (Therapy transcripts)ªº¤ÀªR¡Aµo²{¨ì¼ÖÆ[¨ú¦Vªº¯f¤H¦³¸û§Cªº¼~Æ{¶É¦V¡C³o¤]¤ä«ù¤FASQªºµo²{¡A¤]´N¬O»¡¸ÑÄÀ­·®æ¬O§ïµ½¼~Æ{¶É¦Vªº¤ß²zªvÀø«ü¼Ð¡C

Peterson§ó¶i¤@¨Bªº¬ã¨sCAVE®Ä«×¡A¥H66¦ì¤j¾Ç¥Í©Ò¼gªº¦³Ãö©ó¹L¥h´X¦~¨­Ãä³Ì¾Dªº¨â¥ó¨Æ¤§µu¤å¡A¤§«á¦A¶ñ¼gASQ»PBDI¡C µ²ªGµo²{¡G

1. ¦]ªG¸ÑÄÀ(causal explanation)¤è¦¡¡G

CAVE ¤À¼Æ©M BDI¦³°ª¬ÛÃö¡C

2. CAVE©MASQ ¤]¦³ÅãµÛ¬ÛÃö¡C

(¤G)¡B CAVE
«Øºc®Ä«×
Construct Validity

Peterson and Seligman (1984) ¨Ï¥ÎCAVE¡A¹ï1900-1950¦~¶¡ªº´Î²y¶¤­û¡A¶i¦æ¦º¤`²v(mortality)»P¿©¯f²v(morbidity)ªºÀɮ׬ã¨s ¡Cµ²ªGµo²{¡G

1. An optimistic style for positive events predicted

longevity (r=.45, p<.01),

2. A pessimistic style for negative events showed

the opposite relationship (r= -.26, p<.08).

Peterson, Seligman, and Valliant (1988)

¹ïHarvard classes of 1939 to 1942 ¡]in the Grant Study), ªºªø´ÁÁa³e¬ã¨s(a longitudinal investigation)¡C µ²ªGµo²{¡G

More optimistic an individual was in 1946, the better his physical health in 1970, even when physical health and mental health at age 25 were controlled.

(¤T)¡BThe Children¡¦s Attributional Style Questionnaire¡]CASQ¡^¡i¨àµ£Âk¦]­·®æ°Ý¨÷¡j

²¤¶¡G

¾A¥Î¦~ÄÖ¡G8-14·³

48­ÓÃD¥Ø

ÃD¥Ø¤º®e¡G°²³]«Ä¤l³B©ó¥¿¦V©Î­t¦V¨Æ¥ó¤¤¡A¨Ã´£¨ÑÃö©ó¦¹¨Æ¥óªº¨â­Ó¥i¯à­ì¦]¸ÑÄÀ¡A«Ä¤l­n¦b³o¨â­Ó­ì¦]¤§¤¤¿ï¤@­Ó¥L»{¬°¸û¦nªº¡C

³o¨â­Ó¥i¯à­ì¦]ªº¿ï¾Ü¡A¥i¥H´ú±o«Ä¤lªºÂk¦]­·®æ¡G

¨Ò¤l¡G

¡§You go on a vacation with a group of people and

you have a good time:

(a) I was in a good mood (internal);

(b) The people I was with were in good moods

(external).¡¨

(¤T)¡BThe Children¡¦s Attributional Style Questionnaire¡]CASQ¡^¡i¨àµ£Âk¦]­·®æ°Ý¨÷¡j

­p¤À¡G

1¤À¡G¤º¦b¡Bí©w©Î¥þ­±©Ê

0¤À¡G¥~¦b¡B¤£Ã­©w©Î¯S®í©Ê

3­ÓÂk¦]¦V«×ªº¤À¼Æ¦U¥Ñ¨ä¹ïÀ³ÃD¥Ø¤§±o¤À¥[Á`¦Ó±o¡C

¹ï©ó¥¿¡B­t¦V¨Æ¥ó·|¦³­Ó§O±o¤À¡CCASQ»PASQ¤@¼Ë¡A¥i±o¨ì¬Û¦Pªº¤l¤À¼Æ¡C

(¤T)¡BThe Children¡¦s Attributional Style Questionnaire¡]CASQ¡^¡i¨àµ£Âk¦]­·®æ°Ý¨÷¡j

CASQ¦b¤ß²z´úÅç¤WªºÄÝ©Ê¡GCASQªº¤À¶qªí±o¤À¦p¦PASQ¡A¨ã¦³¾A«×ªº«H«×

¤º³¡¤@­P©Ê¡G¤º³¡¤@­P©Ê¤j¦h¶W¹Lscale intercorrelation¡]¶qªí¤º¬ÛÃö¡^¡A³o«ü¥X³o¨Ç¶qªí¦³¤£·íªº¹ê¼x°Ï¿ë©Ê¡C

·í¥¿¦V»P­t¦V¨Æ¥ó¤À¶}¡A¦p¦P¦bASQ¤¤©Ò°µªº¡A¦U¦Ûµ²¦X¦U­Ó¤À¶qªí±o¨ì¤@²V¦X¤À¼Æ®É¡A·|¦³¸û°ªªº«H«×¡C

¦A´ú«H«×¡G«e¡B«á´ú¶¡¶Z6­Ó¤ë®É¡ACASQªº¤À¼Æ¤´¦³¤@­P©Ê(r = .71, .66) ¡A³oªí¥Ü¨àµ£ªºÂk¦]­·®æ¬Oí©w¤£Åܪº¡C

¬Û¸û©óµL¼~Æ{¯gª¬ªº¨àµ£¡A¦³¼~Æ{¯gª¬ªº¨àµ£¹ï­t­±¨Æ¥ó³q±`·|°µ¥X¤º¦bªº¡Bí©wªº»P¥þ­±©ÊªºÂk¦]¡F

´dÆ[ªº¸ÑÄÀ­·®æ¡A¥i¹w´ú¨àµ£¦b¥¼¨Ó6­Ó¤ë¤¤¬O§_·|¥X²{¼~Æ{¯gª¬¡C

¥|¡BFuture Development in the Measurement of Explanatory Style
(¤@)¡BResearch on Explanatory Style and Expectations¡G

1. ¥ý¤£ºÞ´Á«Ý(expectations)¦bRLHT»PHT¤¤©Ò§êºtªº¨¤¦â¡A¥H¤Î¹ï¼ÖÆ[©Ê®æ©M¸ÑÄÀ­·®æªº¦³µÛÃþ¦üªºµo²{¡A¤@¨ÇÃö©ó¸ÑÄÀ­·®æªº¬ã¨s¡A¤w¸g¥i¥Hª¾¹D¤£¦P¸ÑÄÀ­·®æªº¤H¡A¹ï¥¼¨Ó·|¦³¤£¦Pªº´Á«Ý¡C

Metalsky et al., (1993)¬ã¨sÅã¥Ü¡G

¦¨ÁZ¸û§C¡A¥B±N¦Û¤vªº§C¦¨´N§@í©w¥B¥þ­±Âk¦]ªº¾Ç¥Í¡A·|¹w´Á¦Û¤v¦b¥¼¨Óªºªí²{¨Ì©å¦H¡C

³o¼Ëªº¹w´Á¥ç¥i¹w´ú­Ó¤Hªº±¡ºü§ïÅܪ¬ºA¡C

¥|¡BFuture Development in the Measurement of Explanatory Style
(¤@)¡BResearch on Explanatory Style and Expectations

2. ¤@¨Ç¥ÎLOT(Life Orientation Test )¨Ó¿Å¶q¸ÑÄÀ­·®æ¥H¤Î¼ÖÆ[©Ê®æªº¬ã¨s¡A¦³»á¬°¤£¦Pµo²{¡G

Carver & Scheier (1992) ¡GASQ CP-CN ªº²V¦X¤À¼Æ»PLOT ¦³.10 ¨ì.20 ¤§¬ÛÃö¡C

Kamen (1996) ¡GLOT »PASQ CN ªº²V¦X¤À¼Æ¦³-.25 ªº¬ÛÃö¡C

Hjelle et al., (1996) ¡GLOT »PASQ CN-CN ªº²V¦X¤À¼Æ¦³.41 ªº¬ÛÃö¡C

Gillham et al., (1998) ¡G¦b¨â­Ó¤£¦Pªº´ú¶qÂI¤W¡ALOT »PASQ CN-CN ªº²V¦X¤À¼Æ¦³.63 »P.41 ªº¬ÛÃö¡Aµo²{®Õ¥¿«áªº¬ÛÃö«Y¼Æ·|´£¤É¦Ü.77 »P.49 ¡C

¥H¤W¬ã¨sÅã¥Ü¥X .20¡ã.77ªº¬ÛÃö¡CÅãµM¦a¡A¬ã¨sªÌ»Ý­n¹ï¸ÑÄÀ­·®æ©M¼ÖÆ[©Ê®æ³o¨â­Ó·§©À¶¡ªºÃö«Y¡A¶i¦æ¸û¬°ª½±µªº¬ã¨s

¥|¡BFuture Development in the Measurement of Explanatory Style
(¤G)¡B Clarifying the Optimism Construct

Clarifying the Optimism Construct¡]¼á²M¼ÖÆ[ªº·§©À¡^¡G

Optimism vs. Explanatory Style

¡]¼ÖÆ[ vs. ¸ÑÄÀ­·®æªº·§©ÀÂç²M¡^¡G

1. ¨Ï¥Î´dÆ[©M¼ÖÆ[¨Óªí¥Ü¸ÑÄÀ­·®æ¡A¦³¥H¤U2ÂIª§½×¡G

¼ÖÆ[©M´dÆ[¬°´¶³q»y¨¥¤¤ªºÃã·J¡A¦Ó«D¾Ç³N¥Î»y¡C

¹ï­t¦V¨Æ¥óªº¼ÖÆ[¬Ýªk¬°¥~¦bªº¡BÁ{®Éªº¡B¥H¤Î¥u¦³¼vÅT¤H¥Í¯S©wªº¨Æ¶µ¡F

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3. ÁöµM¸ÑÄÀ­·®æ»P´dÆ[¦³³\¦h¬Û¦Pªº«áªG¡A¦ý³o¨Ã¤£ªí¥Ü§Ú­Ì­n±N¨âªÌµø¬°¬Û¦Pºc©À¡C

4. ³Ì­«­nªº¡A¦b¤j¦h¼Æªº¬ã¨s¤¤¡A¸ÑÄÀ­·®æ»P¼ÖÆ[©Ê®æ¡A¥u¦³»´«×¨ì¤¤«×ªº¬ÛÃö ¡C

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Dimensions¡]¦V«×ªº°ÝÃD¡^¡G

¤£¦P¸ÑÄÀ­·®æ¦V«×¶¡ªº¬ÛÃö¡A³q±`¤]¬Û·í§C¡A¯S§O¬O¦b¤º¦b¦V«×»P¨ä¥L¦V«×ªº¬ÛÃö¡C

¶V¨Ó¶V¦h°ÝÃD¦b±´°Q³o¨Ç¦V«×¬O§_¤Ï¬M³æ¤@ºc©À¡H¡]¸ÑÄÀ­·®æ¦P®É¤]·Q¬ã¨s³o¨Ç¦V«×¡A¦b¾ãÅé·§©À¤¤¡A¬O§_¦û¬Ûµ¥ªº¤ñ­«¡C¡^

¥|¡BFuture Development in the Measurement of Explanatory Style
(¤T)¡B Overlap With Other Psychological Constructs

Overlap With Other Psychological Constructs¡G

¬ã¨sªÌ¹ï©ó±N¼ÖÆ[µø¬°¤ß²zºc©Àªº·Qªk·P¨ì¿³½ì¡A

Watson & Clark (1984) »{¬°¤@¨Ç¬Ý°_¨Ó¤£¦Pªº¤H®æ»P

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°ò¦·§©À¬O¥¿¦V±¡·P¡]positive affectivity¡FPA¡^»P

­t¦V±¡·P¡]negative affectivity¡FNA¡^¡C

¦]¦¹¡A¤@¨Ç¨ä¥Lªººc©À¡A¹³¬O¯«¸g½è¡B¦Û´L¡B¼ÖÆ[

¥H¤Î¸ÑÄÀ­·®æµ¥¡AÀ³¸Ó©¼¦¹¬O¬ÛÃö¡C¦]¬°³o¨Çºc©À¡A

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¥|¡BFuture Development in the Measurement of Explanatory Style
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¤ä«ùWatson & ClarkªºÆ[ÂI¡G

Smith et al., (1989) ¦b±Æ°£NA¦]¯Àªº¬ÛÃö«á¡A¼ÖÆ[©M¼~Æ{¯gª¬ªºÅãµÛ¬ÛÃö´N®ø¥¢¤F¡C

¤Ï¹ïWatson & ClarkªºÆ[ÂI¡G

Chang et al., (1997) ±±¨îPA »PNA «á¡A¼ÖÆ[»P´dÆ[¨ÌÂÂ¥i¥H¹w´ú¥DÆ[©¯ºÖ·P¡C

Lucas et al.,(1996) ¡G§Q¥Î¦h­«¯S½è¡Ð¦hºØ¤èªk¯x°}¡]multitrait-multimethod matrix ¡^ªº¤èªk¨Ó¤ÀªR¡A±o¨ì¼ÖÆ[»PNA ¦b¹w´ú¥Í¬¡º¡·N«×®É¡A¬O¥i¥H°Ï¿ëªº¤£¦PÅܶµ¡C

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ªº¬ã¨s¨Ó¶i¤@¨B±´¯Á¡C

¥|¡BFuture Development in the Measurement of Explanatory Style
(¤T)¡B Overlap With Other Psychological Constructs

¡@

Optimism depressive

symptoms

NA

Negative affection

¥|¡BFuture Development in the Measurement of Explanatory Style
(¥|)¡B Accuracy

Accuracy¡]·Ç½T©Ê¡A¦¹³Bªº·Ç½T©Ê«üÂk¦]»P¯u¹êªº±¡¹Ò¬O§_¬Û²Å¡^¡G

¤j¦h¼Æ¬ã¨sªÌ¦b¬ã¨s¸ÑÄÀ­·®æ»P¼ÖÆ[©Ê®æ®É·|°²³]¶V¼ÖÆ[ªºª¬ºA·|¶V¦n¡C³q±`¡A¬ã¨s«ü¥X¨ã¼ÖÆ[¸ÑÄÀ­·®æªº­ÓÅé¤ñ¨º¨Ç¸û´dÆ[ªº¦P¾«¡A¦³§ó¦nªº¥DÆ[©¯ºÖ·P¥H¤Î¤ß²z°·±dª¬ºA¡C

¶V¼ÖÆ[¯uªº¶V¦³¯q¶Ü¡H

¥Ø«e¹ï©ó¸ÑÄÀ­·®æ»P¼ÖÆ[©Ê®æªº¬ã¨s¤j¦h©¿µø·Ç½T©Ê©Ò§êºtªº¨¤¦â¡C

Taylor & Brown (1998) ¥D±i¡A¼ÖÆ[¶É¦V¬O¾AÀ³Àô¹Òªº¤@ºØ°¾»~Âk¦]¡CEx. «D¼~Æ{­ÓÅé¹ï¥L­Ì¦Û¤v±±¨î¨Æ¥óªº¯à¤O¡A¦³¹L°ªµû»ù¡F¤Ï¤§¡A¼~Æ{­ÓÅé¹ï¦Û§Ú±±¨î·Pªºµû»ù¸û§C¡A¦ý³q±`¸û¬°·Ç½T¡C

¶EÀø¼~Æ{ªº±M¬ìÂå¥Í«ü¥X¡G¼~Æ{¯g±wªÌ·|¹L«×»{©w¨Æ¥óªº­t¦V«áªG¡A¥B§C¦ô¦Û¤v¹ïÀô¹Òªº´x±±¯à¤O¡C

¥|¡BFuture Development in the Measurement of Explanatory Style
(¥|)¡B Accuracy

µM¦Ó¡G

¼ÖÆ[¥D¸qªÌªº§C¦ô­t¦V¨Æ¥ó¡A¥i¯à·|¦]¦¹¦b­±¹ï°ÝÃD®É±¹¤â¤£¤Î¡C

¹ï¦¨¥\ªº¥i¯à©Ê§@¹L«×¹w´Á¡A¤]¥i¯à¨Ï­ÓÅé¦b¦¨¥\¾÷·|´ù¯íªº¨Æ±¡¤W®ö¶Oºë¤O¡C

¦P¼Ë¦a¡A­ÓÅé±Mª`¦b¹ï°ÝÃD¤£¥¿½Tªº´Á«Ý¤W¡A§Y¨Ï³o­Ó´Á«Ý¬O¼ÖÆ[ªº¡A¤]µ´«D¸Ñ¨M°ÝÃDªº¦n¤èªk¡C

¡@ ¥¼¨Óªº¬ã¨sÀ³¸Ó±´°Q·Ç½T©Ê¦b§@·~ªí²{»P°·±d¤W

©Ò§êºtªº¨¤¦â¡C

¤­¡BConclusion

1. ¼ÖÆ[»P¸ÑÄÀ­·®æ»Ý­n¡G

§óºë½Tªº©w¸q

¨âªÌ¶¡ªº°Ï§O­nÂç²M

³o¨âªÌ©M¨ä¥Lºc©À¶¡ªºÃöÁp­n¶i¤@¨Bªº¬ã¨s¡C

2. ¸ÑÄÀ­·®æ¬O§_¬O³æ¤@ªººc©À¦V«×¡H

³o¨Ç¦V«×¶¡¬O§_¦û¬Û¦Pªº¤ñ­«

²V¦X¤À¼Æ©Î¬O³æ¤@¦V«×¤ñ¸û¦³¹w´ú¤O¡A¤´»Ý­n§ó¦h¬ã¨s¡C

¤­¡BConclusion

3. ¸ÑÄÀ·Ç½T©Ê¬O¥¼¨Ó¬ã¨sªº­«ÂI¡G

¸ÑÄÀ­·®æ»P·Ç½T©Ê¶¡ªºÃö«Y¬°¦ó¡H

µû¶q·Ç½T©ÊÂk¦]ªº¤èªk­n§ä¥X¨Ó¡C

4. ½T»{¼ÖÆ[»P¸ÑÄÀ­·®æ¬O¼vÅT¥DÆ[©¯ºÖ·Pªº¥D­n¾÷¨î¡A

¨Ã¥B­n§ä¨ì¼ÖÆ[»P¸ÑÄÀ­·®æªº¥D­n¤º¦b¾÷¨î¡C

¦pªG¼ÖÆ[¥H¤Î¸ÑÄÀ­·®æ»P¥DÆ[©¯ºÖ·Pªº½T¦³¦]ªGÃö«Y¡A

«h³o¤è­±¥¼¨Óªº¬ã¨s¡A´N¥i¥HÀ°§U³\¦h¤H¨Ó§ïµ½

¥L­Ìªº¥Í¬¡«~½è¡C

Social Perception and Social Cognition

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¤@ºØ¬ã¨s§Ú­Ì¦p¦ó¹ï§O¤H²£¥Í¦L¶H¡A¤Î¦p¦ó¹ï§O¤H¦æ¬°¸ÑÄÀªº¾Ç°Ý¡C¥D­n¥DÃD¬°¡G¤H»Úª¾Ä±¡B¦L¶H§Î¦¨¡BÂk¦]¡B¤Î¦L¶H§ïÅܵ¥¡C

ªÀ·|»{ª¾(Social Cognition¡GThinking about Others and the Social World)¡G

±´°Q§Ú­Ì¦p¦ó¸ÑÄÀ¡B¤ÀªR¡BÂkÃþ¡B°O¾Ð¡B¤Î¨Ï¥ÎªÀ·|°T®§¨Ó¹ï¥@¬É°µ§PÂ_»P¨M©wªº¬ã¨s¡C

ªÀ·|¤ß²z¾Ç®a¹ï¤HÃþ«ä¦ÒÃþ«¬ªº°²³]»PºtÅÜ
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ªº¤@­P©Ê¡C

2¡B¤Ñ¯uªº¬ì¾Ç®a¡]Naive scientist¡^¡G

¤Z¨Æ²`«ä¼ô¼{ªº²z©Ê«ä¦Ò¡A°l¨D¥¿½T©Ê¡C

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«ä¦Ò¡A°l¨D®ÄªG¡C

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¡]¬O­n²`«ä¼ô¼{©Îª½±µ±Ä±¶®|¦¡«ä¦Ò¡^.

ªÀ·|¤ß²z¾Ç®a¹ï¤H©Êªº°ò¥»°²³]ºtÅÜ

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Biases in Attribution

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¡@

Biases in Attribution
¤@¡B The Fundamental Attribution Error

The Fundamental Attribution Error (°ò¥»Âk¦]Á[»~)¡G

The tendency to make internal attribution in

explaining the behavior of other. (Lee Ross, 1977)

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1. The Role of Predictability Need ¡]¹w´úªº»Ý¨D¡^

2. Perceptual Salience ¡]ª¾Ä±ÅãµÛ©Ê¡^

(Taylor & Fiske, 1975) , actor¤Îobserver¤§¹êÅç¡C

Biases in Attribution
¤G¡B Actor-Observer Difference

Actor-Observer Difference (¦æ°ÊªÌ»PÆ[¹îªÌªºÂk¦]®t²§)¡G

Actors give More weight to External Factors than

do observers.

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Biases in Attribution
¤T¡B Self-serving Biases (¦Û§QÂk¦]°¾»~¡^

Self-Serving Attributions Enhance and Protect

Self-Esteem

Biases in Attribution
¤T¡B Self-serving Biases and self-defeating attribution

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Seligman(1987,1991)ªº¸ÑÄÀ­·®æ(explanatory style) ¼ÖÆ[ªÌ»P´dÆ[ªÌªºÂk¦]­·®æ¡G

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Biases in Attribution
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Optimistic explanatory style
by Christopher Peterson & Tracy A. Steen (U. of Michigan)

Handbook of positive psychology

(Eds.) C.R. Snyder & Shane J. Lopez (2002)

Oxford University press NY: New York

«e¨¥

Optimism¡G

1. conceptualized and assessed in a variety of ways,

2. has been linked to :

1). positive mood and good morale,

2). perseverance and effective problem solving,

3). achievement in a variety of domains,

4). popularity,

5). good health,

6). even to long life and

7). freedom from trauma.

What is Optimistic explanatory style?

What are the origins of explanatory style?

Directions for future research:

Explanatory style as positive psychology

¤@¡BHistory: from learned helplessness to explanatory style
¡]¤@¡^ª¯ªº¾Ç¨ÓµL§U·P

1. ¾Ç¨ÓµL§U·P¬O·½¦Û¹ï°Êª«ªº¬ã¨s¡G

Learned helplessness was first described by psychologists studying animal learning (Overmier & Seligman, 1967; Seligman & Maier, 1967).

2. ¤W­z¬ã¨s¥i¤£¯A¤Î»{ª¾¾úµ{¡A¦Ó°µ¯ÂS-Rªº

¸ÑÄÀ¡C

For example, perhaps the dogs learned that holding still when shocked somehow decreased pain. If so, then they held still in the second situation as well, because this response was previously reinforced.

¤@¡BHistory: from learned helplessness to explanatory style
¡]¤@¡^ª¯ªº¾Ç¨ÓµL§U·P

3. ¦@³mªº¬ã¨s³]­p¡Aªº¼á²M¤F¤W­zªºª§Ä³

4. ¾Ç¨ÓªºµL§U·P¡A¥i¥H¸g¥Ñ¦A«×ªº¤ÏÀ³

Ápµ²¦Ó¯}°£¡C

The animal¡¦s expectation of response-outcome independence is challenged during the ¡§therapy¡¨ experience, and hence learning occurs.

¤@¡BHistory: from learned helplessness to explanatory style
¡]¤G¡^¤HÃþªº¾Ç¨ÓµL§U·P Human helplessness

1. ¥HµLªk¸Ñ¨Mªº°ÝÃD¡A¨Ó¨ú¥N¤F¤£¥i±±¨îªº¹qÀ»¡CUnsolvable problems usually were substituted for uncontrollable electric shocks, but the critical aspects of the phenomenon remained: Following uncontrollability, people show a variety of deficits (Mikulincer, 1994; Peterson et al., 1993).

2. ¤£¥i±±¨îªºÃa¨Æ¥ó¨Ï¤HµJ¼{¡A¦ý¬O¦³§K¬Ì®ÄªG¡C

Uncontrollable bad events made anxiety and depression more likely. Previous exposure to controllable events immunized people against learned helplessness.

3. µL§U·P¤]¥i¸g¥Ñ¤Ï¨î¬ù¦Ó¥h°£¡C

Similarly, forcible exposure to contingencies reversed helplessness deficits.

¤@¡BHistory: from learned helplessness to explanatory style
Human helplessness

°Êª«»P¤HÃþªº¥D­n¤£¦PÂI¡G

1. Ãa¨Æ¥ó¤ñ¦n¨Æ¥ó¹ï¤HÃþªº¼vÅT¸û¤j¡C

Uncontrollable bad events seem much more likely than uncontrollable good events to produce helplessness among human beings, probably because people are able to devise coherent (if not always veridical) accounts for why good things happen to them.

2.¤H­Ì·|¥h¥D°Ê«Øºc¨Æ¥ó¡G¤H¬O¥i¥H¿ï¾Ü¥L­n

ªº«ä¦Ò¤è¦¡¡G

People can construe events in ways that go far beyond their literal controllability.

For example, religion provides a worldview that can blunt the effects of not being able to control events.

¤@¡BHistory: from learned helplessness to explanatory style
¡]¤G¡^¤HÃþªº¾Ç¨ÓµL§UHuman helplessness

3. ¤HÃþ¥i¸g¥ÑÆ[¹î¦Ó±o¨ìµL§U·Pªº´À¥N¾Ç²ß

(Vicarious helplessness)

Problem-solving difficulties can be produced in people if they simply see someone else exposed to uncontrollability (Brown & Inouye, 1978).

4. ¹ÎÅé©ÊªºµL§U·P¬V¡G

Small groups of people can be made helpless by exposure to uncontrollable events.

¤@¡BHistory: from learned helplessness to explanatory style
¡]¤G¡^¤HÃþªº¾Ç¨ÓµL§U·P Human helplessness

Peterson et al., (1993) proposed three formal criteria with which to judge the goodness of an application.

¡]¾Ç¨ÓµL§U·Pªº¥D­nÃöÁä¦]¯À¡^

1. Objective noncontingency.

¡]¤ÏÀ³»P¨ë¿E¬O«ÈÆ[¦aµLÃö³s©Ê¡^

2. Cognitive mediation.

¡]»{ª¾ªº¤¤¤¶¡^

3. Cross-situation generality of passive behavior.

¡]±¡¹ÒªºÃþ¤Æ¡^

¾Ç¨ÓµL§U·Pªº¬ÛÃö«áªG¡G

cognitive retardation, low self-esteem,

sadness, reduced aggression,

immunosupperession,

and physical illness.

¤@¡BHistory: from learned helplessness to explanatory style
¡]¤G¡^¤HÃþªº¾Ç¨ÓµL§U·PHuman helplessness

¨äÀ³¥Îªº¼sªx©Ê¡G

Using these criteria, then, good applications include¡G

depression,

academic, athletic, and vocational failure;

worker burnout,

deleterious psychological effects of crowding,

unemployment , noise pollution,

chronic pain, aging, mental retardation, and epilepsy;

and passivity among ethnic minorities

(see Peterson et al., 1993, Table7-1).

¤@¡BHistory: from learned helplessness to explanatory style
(¤T)¡BAttributional reformulation and explanatory style

Abramson et al., (1978)¥ø¹Ï±N¾Ç¨ÓªºµL§U·PÀ³¥Î¦b

Âk¦]²z½×ªºµ²ºc¤W¡]¦p Weine, 1974¡^

Attributional reformulation and explanatory style (ARTH)

¦]¦Ó²£¥Í¡C

An explanatory style characterized by internal, stable, and global explanations for bad events has been described as pessimistic,

and the opposite style, characterizes by external, unstable, and specific explanations for bad events, has been described as optimistic

(Buchanan & Seligman, 1995).

Explanatory style is a dispositional risk factor.

¤@¡BHistory: from learned helplessness to explanatory style
(¥|)¡BMeasures of Explanatory Style

1. Attributional Style Questionnaire (ASQ).

Explanatory style typically is measured with a self-report questionnaire called the Attributional Style Questionnaire (ASQ).

Explanatory style based on bad events usually has more robust correlates than Explanatory style based on good events, although correlations are typically in the opposite directions (Peterson, 1991).

2. Content Analysis of Verbatim Explanations

(CAVE)

¤G¡BOrigins of explanatory style
¡]¸ÑÄÀ­·®æªº·½°_¡^

¸ÑÄÀ­·®æ¬O¥i¥H§ïÅܪº¡A©Ò¥H¼~Æ{¬O¥i¥HªvÀøªº¡C

We know that cognitive therapy can change an individual¡¦s explanatory style from pessimistic to optimistic, reducing the extent of depressive symptoms in the process (Seligman et al., 1988).

Explanatory style therefore is malleable.

¤G¡BOrigins of explanatory style
¡]¸ÑÄÀ­·®æªº·½°_¡^

¸ÑÄÀ­·®æ¬O·½°_©ó¤°»ò¾÷¨î¡H

But what initially sets explanatory style in place? Researchers have not attempted to answer this question with a sustained line of research.

¡]¤@¡^Genetics

¡]¤G¡^ Parents

¡]¤T¡^Teachers

¡]¥|¡^ Media

¡]¤­¡^Trauma

¤G¡BOrigins of explanatory style
¡]¤@¡^Genetics

Schulman, Keith, and Seligman (1993) found that explanatory styles of monozygotic twins were more highly correlates than the explanatory styles of dizygotic twins (r = .48 vs. r = .00).

¤G¡BOrigins of explanatory style
¡]¤G¡^ Parents

The relevant data prove inconclusive.

We assume that the explanatory style of children can be affected by their parents through simple modeling. Children are most likely to imitate those whom they perceive as powerful and competent, and most parents, although not all, fit this description

(Bandura, 1977)

If, for example, children repeatedly hear their parents give internal, stable, and global explanations for negative events, they are likely to adopt these pessimistic interpretations for themselves.

¤G¡BOrigins of explanatory style
¡]¤G¡^ Parents

We know that children from happy and supportive homes are more likely as adults to have an optimistic explanatory style

(Franz, McClelland, Weinberger, & Peterson, 1994).

Thus, optimism is fostered and nurtured through a series of confidence-building experience.

Parents and caregivers face the difficult task of providing appropriate challenges that allow these children to exercise control over the environment.

If children experience repeated failures at a critical age, they may learn that nothing they do makes a difference

(Seligman, Reivich, Jaycox, & Gillham, 1995).

¤G¡BOrigins of explanatory style
¡]¤T¡^Teachers

As teachers administer feedback about children¡¦s performance, their comments may affect children¡¦s attributions about their successes and failures in the classroom.

¤G¡BOrigins of explanatory style
¡]¥|¡^Media

Pictures of victims are displayed repeatedly; reporters review the sequence of events repeatedly; various professionals analyze the causes and effects repeatedly.

In short, the medium ruminates on the violence, tacitly encouraging the viewer to do the same, and such rumination may take a toll, strengthening and cementing into place a pessimistic explanatory style

(Nolen-Hoeksema, 1987).

It is not in the interest of networks to place temporal or specific parameters on a story.

Instead, they benefit from interpreting a story from a pessimistic vantage, specifying the stability and globality of its impact, and thereby enlarging the story¡¦s import.

¤G¡BOrigins of explanatory style
¡]¤­¡^Trauma

Experiencing a significant trauma (e.g., death of a parent, rape, incest) had a more pessimistic explanatory style than those students who had never experienced trauma.

Gold (1986) found that women who had been sexually victimized during their childhood and adolescence were more likely to have a pessimistic explanatory style than were women who had not been sexually victimized.

¤T¡BDirections for future research: Explanatory style as positive psychology

(¤@)¡BAttention to outcome measures

(¤G)¡BAttention to mechanisms

¡@

¡@

¡@

¤T¡BDirections for future research: Explanatory style as positive psychology

¼ÖÆ[ªº¬ã¨s¡A·½¦Û©ó Seligman¡¦s (1990) book learned optimism.

¦ý¾Ç³N¤WOptimism ªº©w¸q¬°¦ó©O¡H

¼ÖÆ[»P´Á±æ¤§¶¡ªºÃöÁp¬°¦ó©O¡H

These expectations are not about the future likelihood of good events but rather about the future contingency between events good or bad responses.

¥¿¦V¤ß²z¾Ç»P¤H¥»¾Ç¬£ªº¥D±i¡A¤S¦³¦ó®t²§©O¡H

What presumably distinguishes positive psychology from the humanistic psychology of the 1960s and 1970s and from the positive thinking movement is its reliance on empirical research to understand the human condition (Peterson & Seligman, 1999).

¤T¡BDirections for future research: Explanatory style as positive psychology
(¤@)¡BAttention to outcome measures

More needs to be done

¡]¹ï©ó¥¿¦Vªºµ²ªG¡A­n¦³§ó¦hªº¬ã¨s¡G

In most explanatory style research, the focus has remained on outcomes of interest to the helplessness modal: depression, illness, and failure.

It is not enough to study positive predictors like optimism or generativity; one must also study positive outcomes or, even better, outcomes that range from negative to positive.

Here the expected positive correlation between optimistic explanatory style and good performance is found.

In the entire sample, we found the expected positive correlation between optimistic explanatory style and good mood.

¤T¡BDirections for future research: Explanatory style as positive psychology
(¤G)¡BAttention to mechanisms

­nÁA¸Ñ¼ÖÆ[¸ÑÄÀ­·®æªº¥D­n¾÷¨î

It is important to take an closer look at the psychological and biological mechanisms that produce the helplessness phenomenon (Peterson et al.. 1993).

When researchers start to show that an optimistic explanatory style is linked to positive outcomes, more of an explanation in terms of mechanisms is demanded.

Emotional mechanisms also deserve attention, given the extensive research literature showing an optimistic explanatory style to be incompatible with depression (Sweeney, Anderson, & Bailey, 1986).

¤T¡BDirections for future research: Explanatory style as positive psychology
(¤G)¡BAttention to mechanisms

¼ÖÆ[»P´dÆ[¸ÑÄÀ­·®æ¤À§O¹w´ú¤£¦P¤§µ²ªG¡H

Although we expected that death by cancer and cardiovascular disease would be especially linked to pessimistic thinking, we found that pessimistic individuals were most likely to die accidental deaths.

Accidental deaths are not random. ¡§Being in the wrong place at the wrong time¡¨

May be the result of an incautious and fatalistic lifestyle entwined not only with pessimism but also with the male gender role.